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DYNAMIC  RELIGION. 


Rev.  Walter  \'roonian'.s  .Sertnons, 

delivered  weekly  before  the  two 

largest  congregations  of  Baltimore 

are  all  jiublislied  by  the  Patiioiic 

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GOVERNMENT 

Ownership 


IN 


Production  and  [)istnbution^ 

Being   an    account  of  337  now    existing    National   and 

Municipal  Undertakings  in  the   100  Principal 

Countries    of  the   World, 


BY 


WALTER  VROOMAN. 


PRICE,    $1.00. 


BALTIMORE: 

Patriotic  Literature  Publishing  Co., 

108  East  Franklin  Street, 

1895- 


1^50 


n 


COPYRIGHT 

1895. 
WALTER    V  ROOM  AN. 


HANZSCHE    &    CO., 

PRINTERS    AND    ENGRAVCRS, 

BALTIMORE,     MD. 


PRKKACB. 


As  this  is,  so  far  as  the  writer  knows,  the  first  investigation 
(jf  the  kind,  it  would  be  unreasonaljle  to  hope  it  to  be  free  from 
mistakes,  or  that  it  should  tell  the  whole  story.  It  will  l)e  found 
to  fall  far,  very  far,  below  a  full  statement  of  an  enumeration  of 
the  now  actually  socialized  institutions  and  enterprises  of  the 
various  leading  governments  of  the  world. 

Rut  that  a  book  is  needed,  such  as  the  writer  has  tried  to 
furnish,  all  reformers  must  agree  who  have  come  in  contact  with 
the  surprising  stupidity  and  ignorance  displayed  by  many  concern- 
ing the  magnitude  of  existing  concrete  socialism. 

An  English  aristocract  and  high  official  of  the  British  consular 
staff,  in  this  country,  whom  I  visited  in  the  hope  of  securing  data 
for  the  chapter  on  Great  Britain  in  this  book,  in  answer  to  my 
request  for  information  concerning  socialized  businesses  in  his 
country,  answered  :  "  Be  assured,  my  dear  sir,  that  we  have  none 
of  those  things  in  H'ingland  ;  we  there  believe  in  h'individualized 
h'enterprise.     H'individualism  is  the  basis  of  our  h'institutions." 

While  this  representative  of  the  British  government  was  thus 
assuring  me  that  in  "H'ingland"  all  business  was  conducted  by 
"  H'individuals,"  I  had  in  my  pocket  a  list  of  two  hundred  and 
sixty-nine  enterprises,  that  in  his  country  are  owned  and  operated 
by  the  government,  and  the  list  was  still  incomplete. 

Mr.  Sidney  Webb  in  his  Socialism  in  England  (p.  65)  says : 
"The  'practical  man,'  oblivious  or  contemptuous  of  any  theory 
of  the  Social  Organism  or  general  principles  of  social  organiza- 
tion, has  been  forced  by  the  necessities  of  time,  into  an  ever  deep- 
ening collectivist  channel.  Socialism,  of  course,  he  rejects  and 
despises.  The  Individualist  City  Councillor  will  walk  along  the 
municipal  pavement,  lit  by  municipal  gas  and  cleaned  by  munici- 
pal brooms,  with  municipal  water,  and  seeing  by  the  municipal 
clock  in  the  municipal  market,  that  he  is  too  early  to  meet  his 


children  coming  from  the  municipal  school  hard  by  the  county 
lunatic  asylum  and  municipal  hospital,  will  use  the  national  tele- 
graph system  to  tell  them  not  to  walk  through  the  municipal  park, 
but  to  come  by  the  municipal  tramway,  to  meet  him  in  the  muni- 
cipal reading  room,  by  the  municipal  art  gallery,  museum  and 
library,  where  he  intends  to  consult  some  of  the  national  publica- 
tions, in  order  to  prepare  his  next  speech  in  the  municipal  town- 
hall,  in  favor  of  the  nationalization  of  canals  and  the  increase  of 
the  government  control  over  the  railway  system.  'Socialism, 
sir,'  he  will  say,  'don't  waste  the  time  of  a  practical  man  by 
your  fantastic  absu/dities.  Self-help,  sir,  individual  self-help, 
that's  what's  made  our  city  what  it  is.'  "  (!  !  !) 


INTRODUCTION. 


The  purpose  of  this  book  is  to  combat  the  principle  of 
paternal  government  and  to  prove  that  the  tendency  of 
society  in  both  civilized  and  uncivilized  countries  is  to- 
ward fraternal  government.  Progress  consists  in  rescu- 
ing human  affairs  from  the  domain  of  chance  and  making 
them  subservient  to  law.  When  in  primitive  times,  the 
strong  man  with  a  club,  who  has  used  it  too  freely  upon 
his  fellows,  is  overcome  by  the  many  weaker  members  of 
his  tribe  ;  then,  the  general  interests  begin  their  long 
conflict  against  unrestrained  individual  caprice.  The 
history  of  this  struggle  is  the  history  of  the  development 
of  civilization. 

With  primitive  man  duty  extends  only  to  members  of 
a  single  tribe.  To  murder  a  fellow  tribesman  or  steal 
his  food  is  contrary  to  the  law  of  the  tribe,  the  only  law 
that  exists.  But  all  outside  the  tribe  are  enemies.  To 
kill  and  rob  them  conflicts  with  no  moral  obligation  be- 
cause as  yet  obligation  exists  only  in  the  tribe.  Then 
larger  tribes  destroy  smaller  ones  or  absorb  them.  Those 
that  absorb  soon  gain  an  advantage  over  those  who  sim- 
ply destroy  and  where  the  habitat  is  capable  of  support- 
ing a  dense  population,  leaving  some  of  the  energies  of 
the  people  free  from  the  struggle  for  food  to  follow  the 
line  of  natural  development,  nations  are  formed.  The 
dominion  of  law  is  thus  extended  so  that  it  not  only  re- 
strains men  from  capriciously  destroying  one  another 
inside  small  groups  leaving  them  free  to  kill  and  rob  out- 
side, but  it  makes  it  possible  for  commerce  and  friendly 
social  intercourse  to  become  permanently  established  and 
regulated  between  people  speaking  various  dialects  and 

5 


having  different  domestic  habits.  In  the  small  tribe,  the 
chief  and  warriors  were  so  intimately  bound  together  in 
all  their  relations  of  life  by  their  common  poverty  and 
common  dangers  that  although  tyranny  was  often  exer- 
cised, they  had  one  common  feeling  and  interest.  But 
when  nations  developed  and  wealth  became  more  plenti- 
ful, the  rulers  began  to  form  castes  and  separate  them- 
selves from  their  subjects  ;  and  as  personal  sympathy  and 
fellow  feeling  between  rulers  and  ruled  lessened,  the 
temptation  increased  for  those  in  power  to  override  the 
rights  of  their  subjects,  in  seeking  to  gratify  their  per- 
sonal appetites  and  ambitions.  Then  came  the  long 
struggle  between  despotism  and  democracy,  between 
the  rulers  of  society,  who  in  the  gratification  of  their  de- 
sires wish  to  be  above  all  law  or  to  be  a  law  unto  them- 
selves, and  the  people  who  wish  to  limit  the  power  of 
their  rulers  by  constitutions,  parliaments,  legislatures 
and  the  other  safeguards  of  representative  government. 
After  thousands  of  years  of  struggle  and  education,  the 
people  of  the  leading  nations  of  the  world  have  become 
victorious  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  and  the  liberties  of 
kings,  emperors  and  presidents,  of  generals  and  political 
tax-gatherers,  are  limited  by  certain  well-defined  regula- 
tions, confined  to  paper  and  clung  to  tenaciously  by  the 
people  ;  that  is,  the  political,  chiefs  of  the  world  have  been 
brought  under  the  dominion  of  law.  But  during  the 
great  industrial  revolution  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
new  forms  of  warfare  have  in  a  large  measure  superseded 
the  old  and  a  new  species  of  ruler,  autocrat,  general  and 
president  have  come  into  existence,  whose  gigantic 
powers  over  their  fellow-men  somewhat  resemble  the 
powers  of  the  primitive  kings.  These  have  the  power 
of  sacrificing  their  fellows  to  their  own  caprice,  that  is, 
they  have  not  yet  been  subdued  and  brought  under  the 
dominion  of  law.  They  are  our  industrial  captains,  our 
commercial  autocrats,  our  corporation  presidents.  Just 
when  poor  suffering  humanity  after  thousands  of  years 
of  struggle  against  oppression  had  succeeded  in  evolving 


laws  capable  of  protecting  their  liberties  against  the  cap- 
rice of  political  rulers,  this  new  variety  of  despot  makes 
his  appearance,  and,  although  leaving  the  people  still  free 
in  name,  and  without  openly  destroying  their  written 
constitutions  and  codes,  gains  mastery  of  the  food  supply, 
and,  by  controlling  the  peoples'  means  of  life,  institutes 
a  new  form  of  slavery  which  again  reduces  them  to  the 
helpless  condition  of  a  thousand  years  ago.  But  the  old 
conflict  between  law  and  anarchy,  between  the  general 
interest  and  unrestrained  individual  greed,  has  started 
again  with  vigor.  And  as  is  proved  in  the  following 
pages,  the  movement  which  aims  to  subdue  these  modern 
lawless  economic  rulers,  industrial  captains,  and  kings  of 
commerce,  has  not  only  made  great  progress  in  the  way 
of  getting  theoretical  converts,  but  in  the  hundred  prin- 
cipal nations  of  the  world  has  gained  a  multitude  of 
practical  victories.  That  new  paternal  government  crea- 
ted by  the  changed  industrial  and  social  conditions  of 
this  century,  which  in  reality  rules  the  world  and  plays 
the  part  of  bad  father  to  all  the  peoples,  was  more  quick 
than  the  common  people  to  discover  the  advantages  to 
be  gained  from  using  existing  political  institutions  as 
means  toward  accomplishing  their  purposes.  And  so  by 
careful  manipulation,  this  real  yet  secret  government, 
the  centralized  money  power,  has  taken  possession  of 
those  political  institutions  which  the  people  through 
centuries  of  suffering  and  struggle  had  built  up  for  their 
own  protection.  During  the  past  few  years  our  great 
political  governments  have  become  simple  departments 
of  this  new  power.  Our  written  laws  and  constitutions 
are  defied  by  the  members  of  its  royal  family,  but  en- 
forced with  unmitigated  vigor  by  them  upon  their 
enemies.  Our  written  laws  and  mandates  of  courts  have 
become  a  one-edged  sword  terrible  to  those  outside,  but 
blunt  to  those  inside  the  magic  circle.  But  although 
this  reign  of  anarchy,  that  is,  the  rule  of  the  individual 
caprice  of  the  (<i\v  over  the  rights  of  the  man\',  has  been 
partiall)'  established,  although  the  citadels  of  law  and 


order  and  of  power  have  come  into  the  temporary  pos- 
session of  the  lawless  government  of  money,  still  the 
people,  too,  have  been  active  along  the  outposts,  having 
taken  innumerable  smaller  points  and  gained  many  un- 
important victories.  Their  greatest  gain  however  has 
been  that  they  are  now  in  sight  of  the  posts  of  real  im- 
portance, they  are  now  face  to  face  with  their  enemy, 
and  as  they  crowd  nearer  one  another  and  their  shoulders 
touch  they  are  beginning  to  feel  that  faith  and  enthu- 
siasm which  comes  from  a  knowledge  of  their  over- 
whelming numbers. 

One  by  one,  during  the  past  twenty  years,  different 
businesses  and  enterprises,  conducted  heretofore  by 
individuals,  solely  for  their  own  profit,  have  been  taken 
by  the  general  government,  state  or  municipality,  and 
administered  at  cost,  for  the  benefit  of  the  whole  people. 
Since  the  dawn  of  civilization,  this  tendency  has  been 
active  to  a  slight  extent,  but  during  the  past  decade  it 
has  become  a  visible,  a  constantly  and  rapidly  augmenting 
movement  which  is  transforming  the  structure  of  mod- 
ern society  before  our  very  eyes.  That  the  principle  of 
fraternalism  is  not  a  mere  theory  can  be  seen  in  one 
moment  by  a  look  at  our  map  of  New  York  City,  which, 
although  the  centre  of  plutocratic  lawlessness  in  Amer- 
ica, shows  that  nearly  one-half  its  surface  is  administered 
by  the  public,  by  means  of  City,  State  and  National 
Governments,  for  the  common  benefit  of  all  the  people. 
Although  much  of  the  very  surface  of  the  earth  is 
claimed  by  individuals  of  that  city  as  their  private 
property,  we  have  about  575  miles  of  public  streets  on 
which  all  the  children  of  men  have  an  equal  right  to 
walk  or  ride;  their  liberties  on  those  streets  limited  only 
by  the  rights  of  others.  Many  of  us  are  so  accustomed 
to  walk  freely  in  the  streets  and  see  so  plainly  the  neces- 
sity of  having  our  streets  the  common  property  of  all, 
that  we  almost  look  upon  their  existence  as  something 
natural  ;  as  if  such  had  always  existed.     But  we  must 

remember  that  the    establishment  of    free    public  high- 
8  ^  "^ 


ways,  both  country  roads  and  city  streets,  was  the  first 
great  victory  for  fraternalism  or  that  form  of  socialism 
now  recognized  as  the  goal  of  the  modern  labor  move- 
ment. They  were  fought  for  as  every  other  socialistic 
reform  in  the  past  has  been  fought  for  against  the  cun- 
ning and  avarice  of  those  who  had  learned  to  regard 
them  as  property  the  source  of  business  profits  for  the 
support  of  their  families  and  obtaining  of  luxuries.  The 
toll  collector  was  at  one  time  an  influential  member  of 
the  best  society,  an  enemy  of  "unsound  theories"  and 
was  only  abolished  by  persistent  socialistic  agitation. 
And  when  any  blind  opponent  of  progress  now  asks  a 
socialist  what  his  theories  have  ever  done  for  the  world 
he  can  point  to  the  streets,  roads  and  highways  of  our 
country  as  one  direct  accomplishment  of  socialism. 

It  was  only  a  few  years  ago  when  if  a  man  residing  in 
a  city  wished  to  enjoy  a  pleasant  hour  sitting  under  a 
tree  or  lounging  on  the  grass  with  his  children,  it  was 
necessary  for  him  to  accumulate  an  immense  sum  of 
money  and  purchase  a  garden  or  lawn,  to  fence  it  in 
against  all  intruders  and  keep  this  immense  investment 
idle  all  the  year  round  with  the  exception  of  a  few  hours 
that  he  or  his  could  personally  use  it.  But  a  socialistic 
idea  dawned  in  the  minds  of  a  few  sensitive  men  and 
women  and  public  parks  were  demanded.  Like  all  other 
new  ideas  this  notion  was  considered  extremely  absurd 
for  many  years,  but  gradually,  by  a  long  process  of  edu- 
cation, the  people  came  to  realize  the  necessity  of  breath- 
ing space,  of  grass  and  trees,  and  spots  for  out-of-door 
recreation  in  our  large  cities,  until  now,  the  common 
lawns  open  to  the  whole  people  in  New  York  City  alone, 
amount  to  about  6,000  acres.  This  is  another  socialistic 
idea  that  has  succeeded.  Instead  of  individual  lawns 
and  gardens  which  we  know  to  be  impossible  in  large 
cities,  we  have  public  lawns  and  gardens.  Systematic 
education  at  one  time  was  a  privilege  within  the  reach  of 
a  very  small  proportion  of  the  human  race;  but  a  few 

strange  men  and  women  with  peculiar  notions  conceived 
a 


the  idea  that  all  children  should  receive  an  education, — 
and  public  schools  became  a  part  of  our  American  polity. 
The  "business"  of  educating  the  young  has  in  a  large 
measure  been  taken  from  the  realm  of  individual  caprice 
and  made  a  public  function.  Another  concrete  accom- 
plishment of  fraternal  socialism. 

There  was  a  time  when  letter  carrying  was  a  profitable 
private  business  ;  when  carrying  a  letter  a  hundred  miles 
cost  25  cents.  Some  men  whose  minds  were  not  averse 
to  a  new  "ism"  when  they  knew  it  was  to  their  advan- 
tage saw  that  by  a  common  postal  system  much  waste 
could  be  done  away  with  and  the  post-office  became  a 
public  function.  One  business  after  another,  one  activity 
after  another  has  been  taken  by  different  countries  and 
municipalities  throughout  the  world  from  the  realm  of 
private  enterprise  until  as  tabulated  on  page  204  we  show 
a  list  of  337  enterprises  conducted  by  different  govern- 
ments, municipal  and  national,  and  a  list  of  225  enter- 
prises and  activities  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  controlled 
or  restricted  by  the  people.  These  lists  and  the  accounts 
of  the  activities  of  the  hundred  different  governments  in 
the  following  pages  cannot  but  prove  to  the  most  un- 
willing mind,  that  leaving  aside  all  extreme  socialistic 
theories  the  whole  trend  of  our  time  is  toward  some  form 
of  fraternal  socialism  as  against  our  present  paternal  in- 
dividualism. The  facts  that  have  been  here  arranged 
prove  that  the  people  are  bringing  one  by  one  their  in- 
dustrial and  commercial  institutions  under  the  domain 
of  law,  and  that  sooner  or  later,  the  chaos  of  modern 
production  and  distribution  will  be  supplanted  by  a  sci- 
entific system  of  production  and  distribution  adminis- 
tered by  the  whole  people  by  means  of  government  for 
their  own  benefit. 

That  this  tendency  toward  the  socialization  of  industry 
will  continue  until  not  only  the  water  supply  system,  the 
gas  plants,  and  street  car  lines,  railroads,  and  other  en- 
terprises that  are  now  in  a  condition   of  metamorphosis 

from  individual  to  public  administration   have  become 
10 


public  functions  ;  but  until  all  of  the  great  industries  and 
business  affairs  of  the  world  that  have  reached  the  trust 
stage,  including  banking  and  bonanza  stores,  will  also 
become  government  monopolies,  is  assured.  The  argu- 
ment is  raised  that  government  monopoly  of  the  most 
important  means  of  production  and  distribution,  with  the 
exception  of  the  products  of  agriculture,  will  produce  a 
system  so  machine-like  in  its  structure,  that  the  life  of 
those  who  participate  will  become  uninteresting.  The 
answer  to  this  objection  is  simply  that,  with  the  exception 
of  agriculture,  the  larger  part  of  production  and  distri- 
bution has  already  become  one  gigantic  machine  of 
which  the  individual  workman,  boss,  superintendent, 
clerk,  book-keeper,  is  now  but  an  atom  responding 
like  any  fraction  of  a  smaller  machine  to  the  other  parts 
of  the  mechanism.  The  question  to  be  settled  is  no 
longer,  Are  we  to  have  machine  distribution  and  pro- 
duction? but,  By  what  authority  and  in  whose  interest 
is  the  mill  to  grind  ?  We  now  have  machine  production. 
Our  machine  is  constantly  growing  in  extent  and  .becom- 
ing more  complex  and  fixed  in  every  department  of  its 
vast  structure.  It  is  owned  by  great  corporations,  the 
number  of  whose  stockholders  is  limited  to  a  class  that 
has  already  become  an  aristocracy  with  privileges  more 
unusual  and  with  powers  greater  over  the  lives  of  their 
fellows  than  any  other  aristocracy  of  modern  times.  The 
demand  of  the  people  is  now  that  this  machine  be  taken 
by  that  great  corporation,  the  government,  in  which  all 
are  equal  stockholders,  and  in  whose  management  all 
have  an  equal  voice,  and  worked  for  the  benefit  of  all 
humanity,  both  present  and  future. 

There  is  no  longer  a  struggle  between  the  competitive 
system  and  socialism.  The  competitive  system  has  al- 
ready been  destroyed  by  its  more  powerful  antagonist, 
the  principle  of  combination.  The  question  now  is, 
whether  this  great  mechanism  of  industry,  the  bone  and 
fiber,  as  it  were,  of  the  social  organism  shall  be  adminis- 
tered and  its  results  enjoyed  by  the  few  who  have  been 
11 


placed  in  control,  some  by  chance,  some  by  adventurous 
cunning  and  mercilessly  dishonest  dealings  with  their 
fellows,  and  some  by  the  exercise  of  unusual  intellectual 
powers  ;  or  whether  the  whole  people  shall  secure  to 
each  a  right  to  share  in  the  civilization  bequeathed  from 
our  common  ancestors.  It  is  a  struggle  of  representa- 
tive government,  by  which  the  administrators  of  public 
affairs  are  elected  by  the  people,  against  irresponsible 
plutocratic  paternal  government  whereby  irresponsible 
self-appointed  "papas"  gain  control  under  the  name  of 
ownership  of  the  very  earth  itself,  of  lands,  mines,  water- 
ways, and  the  machinery  and  means  of  transportation 
and  distribution  on  which  the  people  are  as  dependent  as 
upon  the  air  they  breathe ;  and  which  if  owned  by  indi- 
viduals, necessitate  simply  that  the  people  to  whom  they 
are  the  source  of  life,  are  also  owned. 

A  description  of  the  trend  of  the  national  life  of  the 
hundred  principal  governments  of  the  world  is  attempted 
in  the  following  pages  in  the  hope  of  encouraging  those 
who  are  striving  and  waiting  for  a  higher  civilization  and 
for  the  purpose  of  announcing  to  the  less  intelligent  and 
less  far  sighted  the  character  of  that  society  in  which 
their  children  are  to  live  and  die.  I  believe  that  there  is 
now  sufficient  existing  concrete  socialism  in  the  world  to 
give  a  substantial  foundation  for  the  hope  that  the 
brotherhood  of  man,  the  true  cooperative  common- 
wealth shall  one  day  be  realized.  Those  who  have  been 
victimized  by  the  paid  apologists  for  existing  injustice 
into  believing  that  the  present  struggle  for  an  increase 
of  public  functions  is  something  new  and  untried  may 
also  in  the  following  pages  find  a  revelation  concerning 
the  late  progress  of  the  world  toward  socialism. 

This  first  attempt  to  arrange  and  classify  the  various 
affairs  now  administered  by  governments  is  necessarily 
incomplete,  and  no  doubt  contains  many  errors.  But  I 
believe  the  object  of  the  work  is  sufficiently  important 
to  enlist  the  help  of  those  in  every  part  of  the  world  who 
believe   in  the   cooperative   commonwealth.     With  the 

12 


help  of  such  each  new  edition  of  this  book  will  give  a 
true  account  of  the  latest  practical  victories  of  socialism 
triumphant  in  its  irresistible  and  conquering  march 
throughout  the  world.  The  correspondence  of  such  as 
are  willing  to  cooperate  in  perfecting  periodically  such 
an  account  of  the  progress  of  the  cooperative  common- 
wealth is  earnestly  solicited. 


13 


NOTE. 


THE  ORDER  ADOPTED  in  the  description  of 
Countries  and  Enterprises  is  as  nearly  alphabetical  as 
possible. 

The  enterprises  enumerated  after  each  country's  name 
are  conducted  either  by  the  National,  Provincial,  or 
Municipal  Government  within  it. 

The  most  familiar  terms  are  everywhere  used,  since  the 
main  object  is  to  make  the  facts  intelligible  to  English 
readers. 

The  various   National  and    Municipal  enterprises  are 
classified  under  the  following  heads  : — 
DEFENSE  OF  THE  NATION,  including  facts  as  to 

Army,  Militia,  and  Navy. 
FINANCE,  all   Government  provision  for   Money  and 

Exchange,   also    Land  and   other  Government    Prop- 
erties. 
DISTRIBUTION,  Transportation  and  Communication, 

and  a  few  types  of  distributing  storehouses. 
EDUCATION,   Information   and   Culture   provided    for 

by  the  State. 
FOOD  PRODUCTION,  all  enterprises  directly  aiding 

therein. 
MEANS    PRODUCTION,  all   other  forms  of  produc- 
tion. 
LAW   AND    ORDER,  the   Form   and    Instruments  of 

Government. 
RELIEF  AND   CHARITIES,  every  Public  Provision 

for  assisting  the  Needy  or  Distressed. 
SANITATION  AND   SAFETY,  Public   Provision  for 

Cleanliness  and  Defense  against  Disease  and  Fire. 

14 


STATE  INTERFERENCE  in  Businesses  or  Events, 
which  it  requires  to  be  REGISTERED,  LICENSED, 
INSPECTED,  or  RESTRICTED. 

Of  this  last  division  it  is  necessary  to  say  that  in  many  of  the 
private  enterprises  mentioned  under  the  various  countries  the 
State  prescribes  the  age  of  the  worker,  the  hours  of  work,  the 
amount  of  air,  of  light,  of  surface  and  cubic  space,  of  heat,  of 
lavatory  accommodations,  of  meal  times,  of  holidays,  of  when, 
where,  and  how  wages  shall  be  paid,  of  how  to  guard  against 
danger  from  machinery,  stairways,  elevator  holes,  mine  shafts, 
quarry  avalanches,  of  how  and  when  the  whole  plant  shall  be 
cleaned,  repaired  and  worked,  of  how  certain  articles  shall  be 
packed,  &c.,  &c.  "  On  every  side,"  says  Sidney  Webb,  "  he 
[the  capitalist  or  corporation]  is  being  registered,  inspected, 
controlled,  and  eventually  superseded  by  the  community,  and 
is  compelled  in  the  meantime  to  cede  for  public  purposes  an 
ever  increasing  share  of  his  rent  and  interest." 

And  why  was  all  this  registering,  licensing,  inspecting,  re- 
stricting, franchising,  made  necessary  ?  Merely  because  men  by 
opportunity  went  beyond  their  rights.  They  have  used  the  pow- 
ers of  those  who  should  be  their  neighbors  to  make  of  them 
slaves,  and  now  Society  interferes.  In  so  doing  it  says  substan- 
tially :  "  You  ought  all  to  cooperate  and  let  all  your  work  be 
for  all ;  but  since  you  will  not,  then  must  your  unrighteous  ten- 
dencies and  your  chances  for  abusing  be  limited  to  the  fewest." 

HOUSING,  OFFICES,  &c.  All  Government  enterprises  have 
to  be  housed.  In  most  cases,  the  nations,  states,  provinces,  or 
municipalities  own  the  lands  and  buildings.  In  the  aggregate, 
the  value  of  these  is  enormous.  It  is  only  necessary  to  call  the 
reader's  attention  to  the  capitol  buildings,  state  houses,  post- 
offices,  city  halls,  town  halls,  school  houses,  public  libraries, 
treasuries,  police  stations,  engine  houses,  museums,  art  galler- 
ies, &c.,  &c. 

EDUCATION.  All  Colleges  are  really  socialistic  in  principle. 
It  has  been  found  impossible  to  separate  such  schools  as  are 
strictly  on  state  foundations  from  those  on  denominational  bases. 
Hence,  the  statistics  which  follow  usually  include  both.  Regard- 
ing Primary  Schools,  the  statistics  are  given  only  for  those  which 
are  public.  Private  primary  schools  are  individual  enterprises 
undertaken  for  private  or  corporate  gain.  They  are  not  in  the 
least  socialistic.  Denominational  primary  schools,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  not  established  for  purposes  of  private  or  corporate 
gain,  but  for  the  good  of  the  community.  Their  basis  is  there- 
fore socialistic,  and  hence  they  are  included  with  primary  schools 
supported  by  state,  province,  city,  or  town.    Technological  schools 


are  of  considerable  variety.  Sometimes  the  list  includes  schools 
of  Mines,  Engineering,  Pharmacy,  Commercial,  Veterinary,  &c. 
Secondary  schools  include  High  Schools,  Lyceums,  Gymnasia, 
Real  Schulen,  &c.  The  Government  Grants  refer  to  that  por- 
tion of  the  expense  for  education  which  is  borne  by  the  General 
Government,  exclusive  of  local  grants  or  fees. 

A  very  large  number  of  educational  institutions  in  the  form  of 
Evening  Schoolb,  Institutes  of  various  sorts.  University  Extension, 
University  Examinations,  Afternoon  and  Evening  Technical 
Schools,  are  provided  for  in  various  countries.  Of  these,  gen- 
erally, no  statistics  are  obtainable. 

CHURCHES  are  a  socialistic  feature  of  society.  By  this  is 
meant,  that  they  are  organizations  of  considerable  numbers  of 
individuals  working  for  a  common  immaterial  culture  and  with- 
out the  purpose  of  direct  individual  or  corporate  property  gain. 
Of  course,  there  are  exceptions  to  this.  In  some  cases  such  or- 
ganizations have  degenerated  into  this  unworthy  and  ineffective 
condition.  The  actual  State  Churches  are  more  socialistic,  in  a 
certain  sense,  than  the  more  democratic  denominational  churches; 
but  their  type  is  of  the  objectionable  paternalistic  sort.  In  the 
following  pages,  only  those  churches  are  mentioned  as  socialized 
which  receive  State  aid.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  an  enormous 
socialized  effort  is  not  taken  into  account,  and  one  which  would 
rightfully  be  included. 


16 


NEW  YORK  CITY. 


AREA  41 '/^  square  miles,  or  26,500  acres.     16  miles  long  and  from 

a  few  rods  to  4>2  miles  wide. 

It  now  includes  Manhattan,  Governor's,  Blackwell's,  Randall's, 
Ward's,  Riker's,  North  and  South  Brother  Islands,  and  a  large 
region  north  of  the  Harlem  and  west  of  the  Bronx  rivers.  In  the 
process  of  its  growth  it  has  absorbed  the  villages  of  Greenwich, 
Chelsea,  Bloomingdale,  Yorkville,  Harlem,  Manhattanville,  Car- 
mansville,  Washington  Heights,  Inwood,  Port  Morris,  North  New 
York,  Claremont,  Fairmount,  Morrisania,  West  Farms,  Spuyten 
Duyvil,  Mosholu,  Williamsbridge,  Fordham,  Tremont,  Mt.  Saint 
Vincent,  Mott  Haven,  and  Melrose. 

POPULATION  1,801,739  in  1S92  (State  Census.) 
The  third  largest  city  in  the  world. 
Population  in  1830 :  202,000. 
Population  in  i860:  805,000. 
Population  in  1880:  1,206,500. 
Population  in  1S90:  1,513,501. 

DEFENCE  OF  CITY. 

MILITIA  in  1893  :  5,419.      (5  year  enlistments.) 

Officers:  278.  Men:  5,141. 

Armories:  12.  Armory  Commission. 

State  Arsenal  (equipped  by  the  State.) 

Governor's  Island  is  the  U.  S.  Military  Headquarters 
of  the  Department  of  the  East. 
NAVAL  BATTALION  :  350  men  (included  above.) 

FINANCE   DEPARTMENT. 

(Banks  :  all  private  corporations.) 

(50  "National,"  46  "State,"  and  25  Savings.) 


BUILDINGS  owned  by  City,  N.  Y.  State  and  United 
States : 

Army  Building,  Post  Office, 

12  Armories,  Register's  Office, 

Assay  Office,  State  Arsenal, 

Barge  Office,  Sub-Treasury, 

Castle  Garden,  Tombs  Prison, 

City  Hall,  37  Police  Stations, 

County  Court  House,  150  School  Houses, 

Custom  House,  13  Markets, 

Hall  of  Records,  Rented  Buildings, 
Jefferson  Market  Court,     Engine  Houses  (about  80.) 

Ludlow  Street  Jail,  &c.,  &c. 

The  City  Hall  was  begun  in  1803  and  finished  in  1S12,  at  a  cost 
of  1500,000.  The  front  and  sides  were  finished  in  Massachusetts 
marble,  but  the  back  (or  north  side)  was  made  of  red  sandstone, 
since,  as  a  writer  of  that  time  said,  "  It  would  be  out  of  sight  to  all 
the  world,"  as  the  city  would  never  grow  much  north  of  the  City 
Hall !     It  now  stretches  15  miles  above  this  then  northern  end.    • 

Broadway  was  only  paved  a  little  above  here.  It  may  also  be 
added  that  in  1807  when  Trinity  Church  erected  St.  John's  Chapel 
in  Varick  Street  a  great  deal  of  blame  and  fun  were  heaped  upon 
the  parish  for  building  a  mission  by  a  bulrush  swamp  where  only 
snakes  and  frogs  lived. 

CUSTOMS  DEPARTMENT  (Foreign  Revenue),  Chief 
U.  S.  Office. 

INTERNAL  REVENUE  DEPARTMENT,  U.  S.    Staff 
of  5.     Receipts  in  1892  :  $1,526,370. 

RECEIPTS  of  N.  Y.  City  in  1892  : 

From  Taxes,  _  .  _  $33,232,725 

From  the  General  Fund  and  Special  and 

Trust  Accounts,  _  _  _  5,552,856 

Borrowed  in  anticipation  of  Taxes,  27,665,053 


Total,  _  _  -      $66,450,634 

TAXES  AND  ASSESSMENT  DEPARTMENT  cost 
in  1S92  :  1^111,671, 


FINANCE  DEPARTMENT  cost  in  1892  :  $295,063. 
Funded  City  Debt  in  1892,  -  $155,161,974 

Sinking  Fund  credit,     -  -  -  56,532,507 


Balance,  -  -  $98,629,467 

The  Sinking  Fund  is  rapidly  increasing  and  will  wipe 
out  the  Debt  in  comparatively  few  years. 

NEW  YORK  CITY'S  EXPENSES  for  1893  : 

Amounts 
Allowed  in 
OBJECTS  AND  PURPOSES.  Final 

Estimate  for 
1893. 

The  Mayoralty $     28,00000 

The  Common  Council 88,000  00 

The  Finance  Department. . . . , 301,700  00 

Interest  on  the  City  Debt 4,948,582  09 

Redemption  and  Instalhnentsof  Principal  of  City  Debt,  1,499,021  10 

State  Taxes  and  Common  Schools  for  State 3.554.458  33 

Rents 113,55000 

Armories  and  Drill  rooms.  Rents 39.050  00 

Armories  and  Drill-rooms,  Wages 58,568  00 

Judgments 375,000  00 

Law  Department 202,000  00 

Department  of  Public  Works 3,014,020  00 

Department  of  Public  Parks 1,096,455  00 

Department  of  Street  Improvements,  23  and  24  Wards,      350,472  00 

Department  of  Public  Charities  and  Correction 2,223,425  00 

Health  Department 470,23600 

Police  Department 5,309,886  04 

Department  of  Street  Cleaning 2,200,000  00 

Fire  Department 2,223,133  50 

Department  of  Buildings 214,250  00 

Department  of  Taxes  and  Assessments 128,220  00 

Board  of  Education , 4,480,448  23 

College  of  the  City  of  New  York 150,000  00 

The  Normal  College 125,000  00 

Printing,  Stationery  and  Blank  Books  268,00000 

Municipal  Service  Examining  Boards 25,000  co 

Coroners 54.700  00 

Commissioners  of  Accounts 32,50000 

The  Sheriff 121,378  66 

The  Register 130,000  00 

Bureau  of  Elections 370,40000 


Preservation  of  Public  Records 45,460  00 

Fund  for  Street  and  Park  Openings 154,644  83 

Jurors'  Fees  60,000  00 

Salaries,  City  Courts 383,300  00 

Salaries,  Judiciary  1,139,89000 

Miscellaneous 120,228  77 

Libraries 40,000  00 

Charitable  Institutions 1,305,177  13 

Total   ., $37,444,15468 

(Prom  the  Comptroller's  Report.) 

WEALTH  OF  NEW  YORK  CITY. 

Mayor  Gilroy,  in  an  apology  for  Tammany  expenses, 
made  the  following  estimate  of  the  value  of  the  City's 
available  assets  in  real  property  in  1893  : 

Central  Park  (11,000  lots  valued  at  $20,000  each) $200,000,000 

50  Other  Parks,  valued  at 50,000,000 

Croton  Aqueduct,  valued  at 200,000,000 

II  Public  Markets,  valued  at 20,000,000 

(Net  income  from  these  in  1892  was  over  $1,000,0(X).) 

"City  lots  not  in  public  use  " 8,000,000 

142  Docks  and  Piers  on  North  and  East  Rivers 30,000,000 

(Net  annual  income  is  ^2,000,000.) 

37  Police  Stations  and  Lands 5,000,000 

School  System 15,000,000 

Fire  Department  (real  estate  and  buildings  only) 5,000,000 

Courts,  Prisons,  and  Prison  Islands 20,000,000 

Water  Lots 3,000,000 

4  New  Armories 3,000,000 


(And  one  now  building.) 


Total  corporation  available  assets    $559,000,000 

(Over  $300  per  capita.) 

This  does  not  include  United  States  or  New  York 
State  properties  in  the  city.  Nor  does  it  include  the  in- 
calculable values  represented  in  the  streets,  pavements, 
sewers,  subways,  and  bridges.  Bridges  might  have  been 
placed  in  the  list,  for  they  are  salable  property  which 
under  a  toll  system  would  bring  in  handsome  incomes. 
A  low  estimate  would  make  the  Bridges  alone  worth 
^15,000,000.  The  New  Washington  Bridge  alone  cost 
$3,197,447,  and  New  York's  third  interest  in  the  Brook- 
lyn Bridge  cost  $6,ooo,oco. 


The  City's  debt  in  1893  was  $98,551,821.87.  The  taxes 
for  1893  were  $34,1 77,429.55.  The  total  value  of  taxable 
property  is  not  much  less  than  $5,000,000,000.  (This  is 
about  I- 1 3  (one-thirteenth)  of  the  total  wealth  of  the 
United  States. 

If  now  we  reflect  upon  the  value  of  the  unnamed  or 
unestimated  property  of  the  City  in  the  way  of  streets, 
sewers,  &c.,  and  if  we  remember  that  it  is  this  very  prop- 
erty that  gives  the  value  to  the  other  or  taxable  private 
property,  we  perceive  that  the  total  estimate  of  municipal 
holdings  is  immensely  increased.  As  it  stands  in  Mayor 
Gilroy's  estimate,  the  Corporation  owns  and  manages 
about  one-ninth  of  the  entire  property  within  its  limits, 
and  this  with  splendid  profits,  as  we  have  but  to  recall 
the  cases  of  Markets,  Docks  and  Piers,  &c.  When, 
however,  we  include  the  values  which  actually  inhere 
in  the  unestimated  but  even  more  valuable  streets,  &c., 
instead  of  the  municipality  being  a  one-ninth  owner  it  is 
really  the  possessor  of  one-third  to  one-half  of  the  wealth 
within  its  borders.  This  is  a  fact  too  colossal  for  reali- 
zation at  first.  It  is  some  hundreds  of  years  too  late  to 
advocate  the  doctrine  of  individual  control  of  functions 
in  their  nature  public.  It  is  perfectly  safe  to  say  that 
the  Corporation  of  New  York  will  never  yield  up  its 
ownership  of  any  of  the  holdings  mentioned,  but  on  the 
contrary  it  will  continually  add  to  them.  Although  with 
the  present  sordid  and  unpatriotic  state  of  the  average 
citizen  mind  these  things  are  not  administered  econom- 
ically and  honestly,  yet  bad  as  it  is,  the  saving  to  the 
people  as  a  whole  amounts  to  untold  millions  over  what 
it  would  be  were  these  vast  opportunities  for  demanding 
toll  placed  in  the  hands  of  private  individuals  or  unpat- 
riotic corporations.  And  who  can  estimate  the  improve- 
ment of  service  and  the  lessening  of  cost,  if  they  should 
take  into  their  own  control  the  furnishing  of  light,  the 
work  of  transportation,  and  other  plainly  abused  enter- 
prises. 


6 
LAND  AND  VALUE. 

In  1626  Peter  Minuit,  Director-General,  bought  Man- 
hattan Island  entire  from  the  Indians.  The  pay  was  in 
beads,  buttons,  and  trinkets,  to  the  value  of  60  guilders 
(or  $24).  The  island  was  a  forest  of  oaks  and  hickories. 
Wolves,  panthers,  and  bears  had  a  taste  for  the  Dutch 
sheep,  and  deer  had  a  relish  for  their  corn  and  cabbage. 
The  population  was  then  200. 

In  1660  a  good  sized  city  lot  cost  ^50.  In  1660  the 
rent  of  a  good  house  was  ;^2o  a  year.  Now  a  lot  costs 
from  $20,000  to  $800,000.  Now  a  house  rents  for  from 
$1,500  to  $25,000  a  year. 

In  1678  the  total  value  of  the  estates  was  $750,000. 
A  farmer  with  $1,500  or  a  merchant  with  $3,000  were 
rich  men. 

As  late  as  1807,  4  acres  of  land  at  the  corner  of  Broad- 
way and  Canal  St.  were  refused  as  a  gift  to  the  Lutheran 
Society,  who  thought  it  not  worth  the  fencing. 

In  the  early  part  of  this  century  there  was  a  large  pond, 
60  feet  deep,  centering  at  the  crossing  of  Leonard  and 
Center  Streets  (now  occupied  by  the  Tombs).  On  it 
skaters  sported  in  Winter  and  boating  parties  in  Summer. 
In  1789  it  was  proposed  by  some  wild  dreamers  to  make 
a  park  around  it,  but  the  sober  sense  (?)  of  the  commu- 
nity scouted  the  idea,  because  New  York  would  never 
grow  so  as  to  make  it  within  accessible  useful  limits. 

In  1796  on  this  pond.  The  Collect,  John  Fitch,  the  inventor  of 
the  screw  propeller,  steamed  around  several  times  in  his  18  foot 
boat.  And  it  was  about  this  time  that  an  optimist  named  Oliver 
Evans  made  himself  the  butt  of  ridicule  by  all  the  sensible  peo- 
ple (?)  by  saying:  "The  time  will  come  when  people  will  travel  in 
stages  moved  by  steam-engines  from  one  city  to  another,  at  fifteen 
or  twenty  miles  an  hour." 

In  1825,  north  of  Astor  Place  the  region  was  devoted 
to  farms  and  gardens.  An  old  gray  barn  stood  where 
Grace  Church  now  stands,  and  there  was  a  powder  house 
in  what  is  now  Union  Square.  In  the  triangle  where  3d 
and  4th  Avenues  meet  at  8th  Street  stood  Peter  Cooper's 


Grocery  Store.  Here  stands  the  great  Cooper  Union  now. 
Even  in  1845,  few  houses  were  seen  above  Union  Square. 
While  James  Harper  was  Mayor  (1844-1847)  the  dreary 
waste  region  now  famous  as  Madison  Square  was  cleared 
and  began  to  be  beautified.  Where  the  Fifth  Ave.  Hotel 
now  stands  there  stood  in  1852  the  i%  story  house  of 
Corporal  Thompson,  the  principal  residence  of  the 
region. 

There  are  now  about  90,000  Dwelling  Houses,  and 
about  25,000  Business  Blocks,  making  a  total  of  115,000. 

The  increase  is  about  1,100  new  buildings  yearly,  es- 
timated to  be  worth  $13,000,000. 

The  real  estate  tax  valuation  is  $1,464,247,820,  the 
actual  valuation  is  therefore  about  $4,400,000,000. 

The  assessment  value  o{  personal  property  is  put  down 
at  $321,609,518. 

Total  tax  valuation  $1,785,857,338. 

The  tax  rate  is  $1.90  per  hundred  of  assessed  valu- 
ation. 

DISTRIBUTION. 

STREETS.  575  miles,  would  reach  nearly  to  Clevelantl 
via  Albany.  There  are  378.56  miles  of  granite,  as- 
phalt, and  macadam  pavements  below  the  Harlem 
River.  On  street  repairing,  repaving,  &c.,  there  is  a 
force  of  341  men  and  59  horses.  Expense  in  1893, 
^192,593-60. 

(Street  Railways  are  all  under  corporation  ownership. 
A  Rapid  Transit  Commission  of  5  members  has  been 
employed  for  about  3  years.  In  1S91  and  1892  Bonds 
amounting  to  $108,449.57  were  issued  to  meet  the  ex- 
pense of  this  Commission.  The  City  has  lately  voted 
to  build  an  Underground  Electric  4-Track  Road  itself 
It  is  estimated  to  cost  $50,000,000.  The  first  Horse 
railroad  was  laid  on  4th  Avenue  from  Prince  Street  to 
Harlem  in  i S3 1-2.  This  was  the  first  street  railway  in 
the  world.      There  were   17  franchises  in   1892.     The 


8 

income  from  them  was  $232,912.60.  There  are  33 
miles  of  Elevated  Steam  Railway.) 

(Stage  Coaches.  In  1673  Col.  Francis  Lovelace,  the 
second  British  Governor  of  New  York,  established  a 
ma'il  route  to  Boston.  It  consisted  of  a  messenger 
who  made  one  round  trip  a  month  for  "  the  more 
speedy  intelligence  and  dispatch  of  affairs."  In  1729 
a  fortnightly  winter  stage  was  started  to  Philadelphia. 
In  1793  "small,  genteel,  and  easy  stage  carriages" 
made  the  trip  to  Boston  in  3  to  4  days.  They  ran  3 
times  weekly  each  way.     Fare  4  pence  per  mile.) 

STREET  LIGHTING.  In  1696  it  was  decreed  that  the 
streets  should  be  lighted  on  nights  when  there  was  no 
moon,  by  lanterns  hung  on  poles  from  every  7th  house, 
the  seven  householders  included  being  ordered  to  pay 
for  the  candle. 

In  1762  the  City  began  to  maintain  lampposts  with 
oil  lamps. 

In  1825  the  N.  Y.  Gas  Light  Company  laid  pipes  and 
lighted  Broadway  from  Battery  to  Canal  Street  at 
public  expense. 

There  are  now  7  Gas  Companies  and  6  Electric  Com- 
panies. Altogether,  they  have  1,349  miles  of  gas  mains 
in  the  streets,  122  of  which  are  north  of  the  Harlem. 
351  miles  of  streets,  bridges,  and  docks  are  lighted, 
7334^  acres  of  parks.  This  is  done  by  26,524  gas  and 
152  naptha  lamps  (each  costing  from  $12  to  $28  per 
year).  There  are  2,441  electric  lamps  (each  costing 
from  1^146  to  $164  per  year). 

The  City  pays  for  lighting  its  streets  and  public  offices 
$888,944,  and  in  salaries  to  officers  $6,402,  making  a 
total  of  $895,346  yearly.  This  expense  should  be 
compared  with  that  of  Wheeling  (VV.  Va.),  and  many 
European  cities  who  own  their  production  plants. 
New  York  might  easily  save  $400,000  a  year  and  have 
a  better  and  more  extensive  service. 


9 

(Railways.     See  under  United  States.) 

RIVERS,  NAVIGABLE.     On  all  sides  of  the  City. 

CANALS.  Erie  Canal  intimately  connected  with  N.  Y. 
City's  growth.  Built  1816-25.  Is  the  property  of  the 
State. 

HARBOR.  One  of  the  best  in  the  world  naturally,  has 
been  vastly  improved. 

WHARVES  AND  PIERS,  144  (Docks  and  Slips).  In- 
come for  rent  in  1892,  ^1,707,166.69. 

(Ferries,  38  lines  (private).  Rents  for  Dock  use,  &c.  in 
1892,  $354,280,18.  First  steam  ferry  in  the  world  was 
between  New  York  and  Hoboken  in  181 1.) 

BRIDGES,  7.  New  York  has  yi  interest  in  the  Brook- 
lyn Suspension.  City's  share  of  surplus  earnings  in 
1892,  $185,000.  Estimated  value  of  all  bridges  over 
$15,000,000.  Washington  Bridge  cost  up  to  1892, 
$3.i97,447-77- 

BRIDGE  ENGINEERS.     SURVEYORS. 

POSTAL  SERVICE.  One  central  office,  20  branch 
offices,  20  sub-stations,  100  agencies  for  the  sale  of 
stamps,  and  1770  letter  boxes  on  lamp  posts,  in  hotels, 
&c.  There  are  1561  clerks  and  11 75  letter  carriers. 
Receipts  in  1892,  $6,783,202.  Expenses  in  1892, 
$2,568,700.     Net  revenue,  $4,214,502. 

(Telegraph.     See  under  United  States.) 

(Telephones.     See  under  United  States.) 

MARKETS,  13.  Rent  and  revenues  in  1892  (including 
Cellars),  $379,246.52. 

STREET  VAULTS.  Privileges  and  rents  in  1S93, 
$108,720. 

EDUCATION. 

The  City  has  provided  for  information  and  culture  b\' 
the  following  establishments  and  institution^  : 
ART  GALLERIES. 


10 

BAND  CONCERTS  in  Central  and  other  City  Park^in 
1893  cost  126,000,  (included  in  Expenses  of  Parks.) 

BIOLOGICAL  RESEARCH. 

BOTANIC  GARDENS.       CENSUS  BUREAUS. 

CELEBRATIONS.  E.  g.,  the  Columbian  quadra-cen- 
tennial. 

CLOCKS,  TOWN. 

EDUCATIONAL  BUREAUS. 

EXPOSITION  AND  FAIRS.     LIBRARIES. 

METEOROLOGICAL  BUREAU  under  U.  S.  control. 

MONUMENTS  AND  STATUES. 

MUSEUMS.  OBSERVATORIES. 

NEWSPAPERS.  Corporation  publishes  the  Daily  City 
Record ;  cost  in  1892,  $70,000.  An  advertising  expense 
of  $800,000  yearly  is  thus  saved. 

PRINTING.  In  1693  the  N.  Y.  Council  invited  Wm. 
Bradford  to  settle  here  as  official  printer,  "  for  £40  a 
year  and  half  the  benefit  of  his  printing,  besides  what 
served  the  public."  He  accepted.  Later,  in  1725,  he 
started  The  New  York  Gazette,  a  semi-official  weekly, 
the  first  newspaper.  It  was  in  the  interest  of  the  aris- 
tocracy. In  1734,  Zenger  started  under  private  au- 
spices a  people's  paper,  The  Weekly  jfournal.  He  was 
arrested,  sent  to  prison,  and  various  numbers  of  his 
paper  burned.  After  9  months  he  was  tried  and  tri- 
umphantly acquitted,  to  the  great  delight  of  the  poeple. 
The  City  has  yearly  a  large  printing  bill  in  the  publi- 
cation of  Reports,  &c.,  but  it  lets  out  the  work. 

READING  ROOMS. 

SCHOOLS  (CITY).  In  1806  first  small  Public  School. 
In  1809  the  Free  School  Society  erected  a  large  build- 
ing on  Chatham  Street.  In  1825  there  were  6  Public 
Schools.     Now  135  Buildings. 

Board  of  Education,  23  members.  Superintendents 
and  Staff,  51  members.  Inspectors,  24  members. 
Trustees  of  24  Wards,  120  members. 


11 

Kindergarten,  work  included  in  the  Primary  Depart- 
ments, 

t Primary,  (includes   Grammar  grades,)  (to  June  30, 
1893,)  262.     Teachers,  3,914-     Pupils,  273,413. 

Secondary,  (to  June  30,  1893,)  4. 

Evening,  (90  nights,  1893,)  29.    Teachers,  371.    Pupils, 
30,672. 

JCollege,  (1893,)  I.     Pupils,  627  (boys). 

§NoRMAL,  (1893,)  I.     Pupils,  1,783  (girls). 

Industrial  and  Trade  Schools. 

Nautical,  i.     Pupils,  45. 

Blind,  i.     Teachers,  30.     Pupils,  240. 

Deaf  and  Dumb,  2.     Teachers,  36.     Pupils,  500. 

Lectures  to  Working  People,  340.     Pupils,  148,635. 

*Expense  in  1893,  $4,439,709.91.     Expense  on  Build- 
ings, &c.,  $1,455,841.06.     Total,  $6,026,642.38. 
ZOOLOGICAL  GARDENS  in  Central  Park  in   1893 

cost  $30,000.     (Included  in  Expenses  of  Parks.) 

There  are  within  the  City  a  large  number  of  Schools 
of  Law,  Medicine,  Theology,  Art,  Technology,  &c., 
which  are  of  the  semi-socialized  sort,  /.  e.,  they  are  not 
established  for  individual  or  corporation  gain,  but  have 
the  good  of  the  v/hole  society  in  viev/-. 

LAW  AND  ORDER. 

ACCOUNTS  COMMISSIONERS.     Expenses  in  1892, 

$32,417. 
ADVERTISING,  Printing,  Stationery  and  Blank  Books 
cost  in  1892,  $264,494, 

fTotal  value  of  land  lots  of  Primary  (and  Grammar)  Schools, 
17,015,814.  Total  value  of  buildings  of  Primary  (and  Grammar) 
Schools,  110,808,047.     Total,  $17,823,861. 

JCollege  of  the  City  of  New  York  has  a  total  property  valued 
at  $611,000.     Receipts  in  1893,  $148,137. 

§Normal  College  (a  girl's  school).  Its  property  is  valued  at 
$1,157,500.     Its  receipts  in  1893  were  $125,000. 

*Ne\v  York  City  during  the  last  34  years  has  paid  $23,864,026.95 
more  into  the  State  School  Fund  than  it  has  received  from  it. 
This  excess  is  now  over  |i,ooo,ooo  yearly. 


12 

APPORTIONING  BOARDS,  (Board  of  Estimate  and 
Apportionment). 

APPRAISING  COMMISSIONERS.  About  1810,  the 
City  began  a  rapid  growth  northward.  The  Commis- 
sioners and  Surveyors  were  attacked  with  dogs,  hot 
water,  cabbages,  &c.  !  ! 

AQUEDUCT  COMMISSIONERS,  Staff  of  8. 

ARBITRATOR  OF  CHAMBER  OF  COMMERCE. 

ASSAYING  COMMISSIONERS  (U.  S.  Office). 

ASSESSING  BOARD  of  5.  (See  under  Tax  and  As- 
sessing Department.) 

AUDITING  BUREAU  cost  in  1892,  562,108.37.  (Amt. 
audited  and  disbursed,  $63,684,925.37.) 

BANKRUPT  REGISTRY. 

CITY  CHAMBERLAIN. 

CIVIL  SERVICE  BOARD  of  Commissioners,  5  mem- 
bers. Number  of  persons  in  classified  service  of  the 
City  in  1892,  7,625.  Number  examined  in  1892,  2,283. 
Expense  of  the  Department,  $19,539. 

COMPTROLLER.     Head  of  the  Finance  Department. 

4  CORONERS  and  Staff  of  8.  Expenses  in  1892, 
$52,473- 

CORPORATION  COUNSELS,  Staff  of  22,  (Law  De- 
partment,) cost  in  1892,  $211,784. 

COURTS   OF  JUSTICE.      Fees   and    Fines   in    1892, 
$134,460.37.     Penalties  in  1892,  $25,706.86. 
Criminal.     Oyer  and  Terminer,  (by  Supreme  Court 
Judges).      General    Sessions,     i     Recorder    and    3 
Judges,  salaries  $12,000  each. 
Supreme.     7  Judges,  salaries  $17,500  each. 
Superior.     6  Judges,  salaries  $15,000  each. 
Common  Pleas.     6  Judges,  salaries  $15,000  each. 
City  Court.     6  Judges,  salaries  $10,000  each. 
Surrogate.     2  Judges,  salaries  $15,000  each. 
District.     11  Judges,  salaries  56,000  each. 
Police.     15  Justices,  salaries  ^8,000  each. 


13 

Special  Sessions,  by  3  Police  Justices. 
Arbitration,  i. 

District  Attorney  (salary  $12,000)  and  6  Assistant 
District  Attorneys  (salaries  $7,500  each).  Staff 
total,  17. 

Besides  Clerks,  &c.,  for  all  these. 
Cost  of  the  Judiciary  in  1892,  51,467,535. 

DOCK  BOARD.     3  at  $5,000  each  yearly. 

ELECTIONS  BUREAU,  cost  in  1892,  $358,977.  Elec- 
tion returns  show  that  there  is  one  voter  for  every  7^3 
inhabitants. 

ENCUMBRANCE  BUREAUS.  For  protecting  Croton 
Water  Supply  in  1892,  there  was  removed  356  privies, 
129  barn  yards,  cattle  pens,  pig  stys,  &c.,  5  factories, 
1,000  miscellaneous  nuisances.  7,564  obstructions,  &c., 
elsewhere  were  removed.  Net  expenses,  exclusive  of 
Croton  Work,  $10,295. 

EXECUTIVE  DEPARTMENTS.  Mayor,  Marshals, 
Sheriffs  and  Staffs,  Department  Heads,  &c.  Mayor- 
alty cost  in  1892,  $27,374.  Sheriff's  Department  ex- 
penses in  1892,  $118,834. 

IMMIGRATION  BUREAU.  In  1891,  Immigration  into 
United  States,  430,887.  In  1892,  Immigration  into 
United  States,  446,000, 

JURY  COMMISSIONER.     Salary,  $5,000. 

JURIES,  GRAND.  JURIES,  PETIT. 

MUNICIPAL  ASSEMBLY  or  Board  of  Aldermen,  ^2. 
Common  Council  Department  cost  in  1892,  $75,486. 

MARRIAGES. 

MUNICIPAL   SERVICE    EXAMINING    BOARD. 
Expenses  in  1892,  $20,837. 

PARK  COMMISSIONERS. 

PILOT  BOARD  of  5. 

POLICE.      Commissioners,  Inspectors,  &c.,   n.     Men, 

3,906.      85,000   arrests   yearly.      37    Station    Houses. 

Police  Department  cost  in  1893,  $5,309,886,     (In  1892, 


14 

;^4,9^9.375)     First  night  watch  or  street  patrol   ap- 
pointed about  1696. 

PORT  WARDENS.     Staff  of  11  (State  officers). 

POUNDS. 

PRISONS. 

Police  Stations.  Jails. 

Houses  of  Juvenile  Correction. 

Reformatories. 

REGISTRARS  OF  DEEDS,  &c.  Expenses  in  1892, 
;^t29,525. 

SINKING  FUND  COMMISSIONERS. 

SUBWAY  COMMISSIONERS  for  Gas  Pipes,  Electric 

Wires,  &c.     Staff  of  7. 

RELIEF  AND  CHARITIES. 

CHARITY  BUREAUS.  Department  of  Charities  and 
Corrections  cost  in  1893,  $2,223,425.  Total  expendi- 
ture in  1892  was  $3,734,067.78.  This  was  equal  to  1 1  % 
of  the  entire  tax  levy,  or  $2.46  per  capita  of  popula- 
tion. 

Brooklyn  paid  for  charities  a  sum  equal  to   i>^  %  of 
its  tax  levy,  or  25  cts.  per  capita. 

Boston,  a  sum  equal  to  8}s  %   of  tax  levy,  or  $2.18 
per  capita. 

Philadelphia,  a  sum  equal  to  4^3  %  of  tax  levy,  or  59 
cts.  per  capita. 

"Chicago  is  prohibited  by  the  Constitution  of  the  State 
from    making   any  appropriation    for   charitable   pur- 
poses," though  a  small  sum  from  saloon  licenses  and 
certain  fines  is  distributed  to  4  institutions. 
(Comptroller's  Report  for  1S92,  N.  Y.  City.) 

DISPENSARIES. 
FIRE-RELIEF  DEPARTMENT. 

HOMES  AND  SCHOOLS  FOR  ORPHANS,  Cor- 
porate, 46.  Number  of  Teachers,  350,  Pupils,  25,830. 
Cost  to  the  City  in  1893,  ^121,299.85. 


15 

HOMES  FOR  IDIOTS. 

HOSPITALS,  GENERAL. 

HOSPITALS,  EPIDEMIC. 

HOSPITALS,  INFANT. 

HOSPITALS,  INSANE. 

HOSPITALS,  LYING  IN. 

HOUSES  OF  REFUGE. 

NURSERIES. 

PENSION  DEPARTMENT  for  Police.     Expended  in 

1892,  ;^307,ooo. 
POOR  HOUSES. 

SANITATION  AND  SAFETY. 

BUILDINGS  DEPARTMENT.     Cost  in  1892,  $92,287. 

BATHS.  16  on  Hudson  and  East  Rivers.  Total  ca- 
pacity, 900.     In  1893,  3,750,000  bathers. 

BUREAU  OF  COMBUSTIBLES. 

DOCK  DEPARTMENT.     Staff  of  5. 

DRINKING  FOUNTS  AND  TROUGHS. 

FIRE  DEPARTMENT.  In  165S  the  first  Fire  Com- 
pany (The  Rattle  Watch)  was  formed.  8  men  stayed 
on  watch  each  night.  Apparatus  was  hooks,  ladders, 
and  250  buckets.  In  1731,  2  Newnham  Fire  Engines, 
imported  from  London,  threw  water  70  feet  high.  P^ire 
department  of  24  men.  There  are  now  58  Engine 
Companies.  22  Hook  and  Ladder  Companies.  14°° 
Men.  3  Fire  Boats.  91  Steam  Engines.  100  Hose 
Carriages.  38  Hook  and  Ladder  Trucks.  4  Water 
Towers.  5  Chemical  P'ngines.  136  Chemical  Fire 
Extinguishers.  3  Hand  Engines.  55  Other  Appara- 
tus. 300  Horses.  200,000  Feet  of  Hose,  i  Exten- 
sive Repair  Shop,  i  Training  School  for  Horses. 
1235  Fire  Alarm  Boxes.  1200  Miles  of  Wire.  Ex- 
penses to  City  in  1S93,  32,223,134. 


16 

FISHERIES    COMMISSIONERS    and    Staff,    (State 
Officers  ) 

FOUNTAINS. 

GARBAGE  AND  REFUSE  GATHERING. 

HEALTH  DEPARTMENT.     4  Commissioners.  9  Offi- 
cers, and  scores   of  Assistants.     Department   cost  in 
1892,  ^452,1  II. 
It  is  difficult  to  comprehend  the  scope  of  the  work  of  the  Health 

Department  and  how  it  effects  the  life  of  the  community.     It  is 

impracticable  for  us  here  to  describe  it.     Take  e.g.,  the  one  matter 

oi  Food  Inspection  for  1892  : 

Milk  Stores 

Report  a  business  of  288,875,080  quarts  of  milk. 
7,505,440  quarts  of  cream.  2,388,960  quarts  of  con- 
densed milk.  5,000  Stores,  inspected  twice  a  week 
from  May  to  November.  Inspectors  shifted  to  new 
districts  every  3  weeks. 

Fruit  Receipts. 

Bananas,  3,250,000  bunches.  Oranges,  1,900,000  boxes. 
Apples,  825,000  barrels.  Grapes,  3,000,000  kegs, 
crates  and  baskets.  Small  Fruits — Peaches,  Pears, 
Plums  and  Berries,  5,000,000  crates,  barrels  and  baskets. 
Pine  Apples,  13,000,000.  Dried  Fruits,  7,860,000 
cases,  bags  and  boxes.  Nuts,  2,000,000  packages. 
Total,  37,510,000. 

Vegetable  Receipts. 

Carrots,  185,000  pounds.  Beets,  6,750,000  pounds. 
Cabbage,  31,000,000  pounds.  Onions,  11,000,000 
pounds.  Potatoes,  Sweet  and  Irish,  562,000,000 
pounds.  Small  Vegetables  and  P^ggs,  27,000,000 
pounds,  (in  cases  and  barrels.)  Total,  637,935,000 
pounds. 

Canned  Goods. 

Tomatoes,  465,000  cases.  Corn,  329,000  cases.  Beans, 
Squash,  Asparagus,  Spinach,  811,000  cases.  Fruits, 
930,000  cases.  Lobsters,  Salmon,  Oysters,  Sardines, 
Mackerel,  &c.,  345,000  cases.  Sardines  and  Meats, 
a, 750,000  cases.     Total,  5,630,000, 


17 

Animals  Killed  in  Siauj^hter  flouses. 

Cattle,  459,909.  Hogs,  1,183,974.  Sheep  and  Lambs, 
1,683,000.     Calves,  226,065.     Poultry,  1,153  carloads. 

Meat  brought  to  City. 

Poultry,  384,196  packages.  Dressed  Beef,  150,000 
carcasses.  Dressed  Sheep,  362,468  carcasses.  Dressed 
Hogs,  151,700  carcasses.  Dressed  Calves,  205,427 
carcasses.  Fresh  Fish,  345,000,000  pounds.  Salt  and 
Dried  Fish,  55,000,000  pounds. 

Dead  Animals. 

Removed  from  streets,  markets,  and  slaughter  houses 
during  1892:  Horses,  9,005.  Calves,  2,958.  Sheep, 
1,007.  Cats  and  Dogs,  15,965.  Dogs  from  pounds, 
7,650.  Donkeys,  i.  Mules,  6.  Asses,  3.  Colts,  13. 
Cows,  83.  Bulls  and  Steers,  29.  Hogs,  23.  Tons  of 
Fish,  25.  Saddles  of  Venison,  8.  Quarters  of  Beef, 
181.  Quarters  of  Veal,  6,162.  Quarters  of  Mutton, 
402.  Barrels  of  Beef,  2.  Barrels  of  Poultry,  776, 
Barrels  of  Blood,  118.  Boxes  of  Offal,  11,203.  Boxes 
of  Fish,  1,690.  Boxes  of  Tenderloins,  3.  Barrels  of 
of  Guano,  3.  Cases  of  Cheese,  150.  Pounds  of  Bo- 
logna, 50.     Tons  of  Beef,  100.     Cases  of  Hams,  4. 

PARKS.  51  Parks  and  Squares.  Estimated  value  in 
1893, 1^250,000,000.  Central  Park  ^  x  2^  miles  ;  862 
acres  (185  of  which  are  lakes  and  400  forests).  Ex- 
pense of  Parks  in  1893,  ;$i,o96,455.     Park  Police,  300. 

Since  1884,  the  following  New  Parks  have  been  added  : 
Van  Courtlandt,  1,069.65  acres.  Bronx,  653  acres. 
Pelham  Bay,  1,740  acres.  Crotona,  135  34  acres.  St. 
Mary's,  25.35  acres.  Claremont,  38.05.  Mosholu 
Parkway,  80  acres.  Bronx  and  Pelham  Parkways,  90 
acres.  Crotona  Parkway,  12  acres.  Total,  3.S43-39 
acres.     Cost  of  these  to  1892,  had  been  $9,897,691.03. 

PILOT  COMMISSIONERS.     6  Members. 

QUARANTINE.     Staff  of  5  (State  Officers). 

SANITARIES  in  Squares  and  Parks. 

SEATS  IN  PARKS. 


18 

SEWERAGE  AND  DRAINAGE  in  1892,  455.8  miles. 
5,432  receiving  basins.  140  outlets  into  the  Hudson, 
East  and  Harlem  Rivers.  There  are  some  sewers 
8x  16  (in  Canal  Street),  many  7  x  10  feet.  Employed 
for  repairs  alone  98  men,  besides  horses,  wagons, 
carts,  etc.     Cost,  ^22,000,000. 

STREET  CLEANING.  In  1696  first  appropriation  of 
£20  for  street  cleaning.  In  1893  cost  ;^2,22o,ooo. 
(In  1892,  ;^i, 924,707.)  There  are  i  500  sweepers  and 
500  carts. 

STREET  SPRINKLING. 

VACCINATION.     Vaccine  supplied  by  City. 

WATER  WORKS.     Croton  Aqueduct  and  water  shed 
is  valued  at  ;$2oo, 000, 000.     Begun  in  1835.     Brought 
the  first  water  in  1842.     Completed  in  1845.     The  first 
Croton  Aqueduct  cost  $9,000,000.       (The  old    Man- 
hattan Water  Works  had  its  reservoir  on  Chambers 
Street.     The   Company  was   chartered  about    1778.) 
The  new  Croton  Tunnel  is  ;^;i  miles  long,   13.53  ft.  x 
13.60  ft.     The  brick  in  it  would  make  30  large  14  story 
office  buildings.     Opened  in  1890.     Cost  $19,642,000. 
Daily  capacity,  320,000,000  gallons.     Daily  capacity 
of   the    old    Aqueduct    is   now    75,000,000    gallons. 
Bronx  River  pipes,  20,000,000  gallons  daily. 
A  new  reservoir  is  being  arranged  for  on  the  site  of 
Jerome  Park.     This  makes  possible  a  total  reservoir 
storage  capacity  of  84,600,000,000  gallons. 
At  the  end  of  1892,  there  were  709.49  miles  of  water 
mains  laid,  7,425  stop-cocks  (20  which  are  in  48  in. 
pipe,  and  47  in  ^6  in.  pipe),  9,273  hydrants,  and  30,286 
water-meters.     The  average  daily  consumption  in  1892 
was  163,000,000  gal.,  and  179,000,000  gal.  in  1893. 
Total  water  works  receipts  for  1893,       $3,906,034 
Total  water  works  expenses  for  1893,        1,380,405 

Net  profit,  $2,525,629 


19 

Water  is  furnished  free  to  93  charitable  institutions, 
amounting,  if  charged,  to  ;$32,6o6. 

Total  revenue  from  Croton  water  since  its  introduction 
in  1842  to  Dec.  31,  1893,  ^70,454,564. 

CITY  INTERFERENCE 

In  Businesses  or  Events  which  it  requires  to  be  REG- 
ISTERED, LICENSED,  INSPECTED  or  RE- 
STRICTED. 

Air  Shafts.  Alkali  Works. 

Amusements.  Baby  Farms. 

Bakeries.  Banks. 

Births  in  1892,  49,447  (probably  only  about  5-6  re- 
ported). Bills  of  Sale. 

Boarding  Houses.  Boats. 

Boiler  Inspection.  Breweries. 

Bridges,  Highway.  Bridges,  Railway. 

Brokers.  Buildings. 

Burials. 

Cabmen  (Hackney  Coach),  income  from  licenses  in 
1892,  $3,924. 

Canal  Boats.  Cellars. 

Cesspools,  Chemical  Works. 

Chimneys.  Cisterns. 

Clothes-poles.  Coffee. 

Common  Lodging  Houses,  118  in  1892. 

Cows.  Dairies. 

Dams.  Dancing  Rooms. 

Dead  Animals. 

Deaths  in  1892,  44,329.  Death  rate,  24.26  per  1000 
of  population. 

Deeds.  Dentists. 

Distilleries.  Divorces. 

Dogs  in  1892,  6,952.     Income  from  licenses  and  dog 

pounds,  $10,492.  Expenses,  $8,298. 

Druggists.  Electors. 

Elections.  Electric  Works. 


20 

Klevators.  Endowed  Charities. 

Endowed  Schools.  Engineers. 

Explosive  Works. 

Factories,  25,399,  employing  over  Ji  of  a  million  daily, 
and  producing  annually  products  worth  $765,000,000. 

Fences.  Fertilizers. 

Fish  Curing,  Fisheries, 

Fire  Escapes.  Foods. 

Fowls.  Friendly  Societies. 

Fruit  in  1892,  2,322,821  pounds  of  fruit  and  food  seized 
and  sent  to  offal  dock. 

Game  Dealers.  Gas  Meters. 

Gas  Works.  Goats, 

Grain.  Gun-barrels. 

Hogs,  Heating  and  Power  Plants. 

Hotels. 

House  Numbering,  begun  in  1793. 

Insurance. 

Junk  Dealers,  income  from  licenses  in  1892,  ^3, 642. 50. 

Lawyers,  about  6,000.         Limited  Companies. 

Lumber,  Manure  Vaults. 

Marriages  in  1892,  16,001. 

Meat.  In  1892,  2,862,244  pounds  of  meat  and  fish 
seized  and  sent  to  offal  dock. 

Merchant  Shipping.  Merchant  Vessels. 

Midwifery. 

Milk  Stores,  5,000  in  1892.  157  arrested  and  convict- 
ed for  adulteration. 

Music  Halls.  Naturalization. 

Newspapers.  43  dailies,  221  weeklies,  48  biweeklies. 
First  paper  was  published  in  1775.  Suji  founded  in 
1833;  Herald,  1835;  Tribune,  1841  ;  Times,  1851; 
World,  i860. 

Notaries. 

Omnibuses  (Stage  Coaches).  In  1892,  income  from 
licenses,  ^1,000. 

Patent  Medicines, 


21 

Pawn  Brokers.     In  i''^*;^,  income  from  licenses,  $64,000. 

Peddlers. 

Periodicals.  394  monthlies,  14  bi-monthlies,  21  quar- 
terlies. 

Physicians.  Pharmacists, 

Pigeons. 

Places  of  Worship.  600  buildings,  valued  with  land 
and  foundations  at  $75,000,000.  Seating  capacity, 
300,000. 

Plate  Dealers.  Plays. 

Plumbing.  Print  Works. 

Privy  Vaults.  Post  Office  Depredations. 

Rabbits.  Railways. 

Real  Estate  Sales.  In  1892,  income  from  tax  on, 
;^22,5oo. 

Restaurants.  Roof-tanks. 

Saloons.  Schools  of  Anatomy. 

Seamen.  Sewer-pipes. 

Second-Hand  Stores.     In  1892,  income  from  licenses, 

$3,337-5°. 
Ships.  '    Skylights. 

Slaughter  Houses.     In  1892,  81. 
Slop  sinks. 

Stables.     60,000  horses,  500  tons  of  manure  daily. 
Street  Railways.      In    1892,    income   from   franchises, 

;^i5o, 710.76. 
Steamboats.  Surgeons. 

Tea.  Tenement  Houses. 

Theatre  and   Concert  licenses,  ;$43,8oo  in   1892.     All 

given  to  charity. 
Tobacconists.  Tug  Boats,  over  400  in  1S91. 

Urinals. 
Vaccinations.     In  1892,  139,805  persons  vaccinated  by 

Health  Department. 
Vivisection  Laboratories. 
Weights  and  Measures. 
Wells. 


22 
SEMI-SOCIALISM. 

Besides  the  enterprises  owned  and  conducted  by  the 
City,  and  besides  the  businesses  in  which  it  interferes  by 
requiring  hcense,  inspection,  there  is  a  large  class  of 
enterprises  which  are  pioneers  in  the  direction  of  munic- 
ipal undertaking.  These  are  to  be  found  in  every  country 
which  has  reached  the  enlightened  stage.  In  New  York 
City,  the  following  are  a  few  of  those  which  belong  to 
this  class  : 

2;^^  CLUBS,  with  over  100,000  members. 
100  SECRET  and  MUTUAL  BENEFIT  SOCIETIES. 
48  COLLEGES  and  Seminaries. 
21  DAY  NURSERIES.        74  DISPENSARIES. 
64  HOSPITALS.  55  LIBRARIES. 

515  CHURCH  ORGANIZATIONS  with  their  Mission 

Stations,  in  all  600  Churcli  Buildings,  valued  with  land 

and  foundations  at  $75,000,000.     Seating  capacity  of 

300,000. 

AMERICAN  BIBLE  SOCIETY  (founded  in  1S16)  has 
published  over  56,000,000  copies  of  the  Bible  in  So  dif- 
ferent languages  and  dialects,  and  has  had  receipts 
amounting  to  about  ^26,000,000.  Its  building  is  worth 
about  5500,000, 

YOUNG  MEN'S  CHRISTIAN  ASSOCIATION  owns 
its  building  which  cost  ;$5oo,ooo.  It  has  14  branches 
with  much  property. 

NEW  YORK  CITY  MISSION  &  TRACT  SOCIETY 
maintains  many  churches,  libraries,  missions,  gymna- 
siums, and  Sunday  schools. 

60  MISSION  SOCIETIES. 

30  ASYLUMS  for  orphans  and  destitute  children. 

15  ASYLUMS  for  the  blind,  insane,  deaf,  and  crippled. 

20  HOMES  for  the  aged. 

60  OTHER  ASYLUMS  AND  HOMES  for  the  poor 
and  friendless. 


23 

CHILDREN'S  AID  SOCIETY  maintains  22  industrial 
and  9  night  schools,  keeps  open  6  lodging  houses,  and 
has  over  37,000  children  yearly  under  its  charge. 
Spends  $400,000. 

20  CEMETERIES  and  i  CREMATORY. 

THE  CITY  SHOULD  OWN 

And  manage  the  following  public  enterprises  which  are 
now  monopolies  operated  from  the  point  of  view  of  pri- 
vate and  corporate  interests  : 

5  Elevated  Railways,  2;^  miles. 
42  Street  Railways. 

38  Ferry  Lines. 
7  Gas  Light  Plants  and  Systems. 

6  Electric  Light  Plants  and  Systems. 
And  many  Productive  undertakings. 

THE  UNITED  STATES  SHOULD  OWN 

Several  other  types  of  businesses  which  have  their  great- 
est strongholds  in  New  York  and  from  which  the  com- 
nmnity  there  suffers  as  a  whole  inconceivably  : 

47  National  Banks.     Capital  $50,000,000. 

47  State  Banks.     Capital  $18,000,000. 

27  Savings  Banks.  Deposits  $325,000,000,  from  800,- 
000  depositors. 

19  Trust  Companies.     Capital  $20,000,000, 

Railways,  4  entering  the  City,  and  23  serving  it  di- 
rectly. 

Telegraph. 

Telephone. 

These  remarks  do  not  mean  that  these  businesses  under 
private  management  have  not  been  of  great  benefit  to  the 
public,  only  that  they  would  be  of  incalculably  greater 
good  to  that  public  were  they  owned  by  it  and  run  for 
it  at  cost,  instead,  as  now,  of  being  conducted  on  the 
principle  of  "all  the  traffic  will  bear"  and  "all  the  public 
will  tolerate." 


24 


UNITED  STATES. 


AREA,  2,969,000  sq.  mi.,  excluding  Alaska. 

POPULATION,  62,622,250  in   1S90,   excluding  Alaska.     Foreign 
born,  9,249,547. 

DEFENSE  OF  NATION. 

ARMY,  Regular,  in  1893,  total  28,148. 

Officers,  2,156.  Men,  25,992. 

Forts  cost  in  1893,  ^2,734,276, 

Expense  of  Army  in  1893,  ;ig49,64i,773. 
MILITIA  in  1893,  total  112,190. 

Officers,  9,278.  Men,  102,912, 

Armories  in  the  large  cities. 

Armory  Boards. 

(Expense  included  under  Army.) 
NAVY  in  1893,  total  10,450. 

Battle  Ships,  6. 

Port  Defense  Ships,  17. 

Cruisers,  41. 

Torpedo  Boats,  3. 

Total  War  Vessels,  67. 

(Also  over  60  other  minor  vessels.) 

Expense  of  Navy  in  1893,  $30,136,084. 
NAVAL  RESERVE,  2,456  men. 

The  first  steam  frigate  in  the  world.  The  Fulton,  was 
built  by  a  Congressional  appropriation  of  $320,000  under 
Robert  Fulton's  supervision  in  1814. 

FINANCE  AND  PROPERTY. 

(Banks,  National,  all  private,  3,773  in  1892.      Liabilities, 

jS3,5i°>5oo,ooo-) 
(Banks,  State,  all  private.) 


25 

(Banks,  Saving,  all  private.  Number  of  State  and  Sav- 
ings Banks  in  1892,  5,579.  Capital  Stock  of  both, 
^386,394,845-    Deposits  at  end  of  1892,  ;$2, 9;  1,594,571.) 

COINAGE.  In  1893  the  total  silver  coined  was  $43,- 
685,178.  (In  1892  there  was  $$'^,19^,911,  and  in  1891, 
;^63,6ii,i58.)  Revenue  from  the  Mints  in  1893, 
:^2, 349,471- 

CUSTOMS  DEPARTMENT  (Foreign  Revenue).  Re- 
ceipts in  1893,  ^203,355,017. 

INTERNAL  REVENUE  DEPARTMENT.  Receipts 
in  1893,  ;igi6i,o27,624. 

NOTE  ISSUE,  under  control  of  the  National  Govern- 
ment.    On  June  30,  1894  : 

Total  Government  paper  in  circulation,  5602,000,000. 
Total  National  Bank  notes  in  circulation,  $207,000,000. 

There  have  been  issued  in  all : 

U.  S.  Notes  (Greenbacks) $2,651,261,808  since  1862. 

Silver  Certificates 979,180,000      "      1878. 

Treasury  Notes 251,012,137      "      1890. 

National  Bank  Notes i>83i,932,755      "      1863. 

Gold  Certificates 1,501,054,300      "      1863. 


Total  paper  issue,        $7,214,441,000 

POSTAL  MONEY  ORDERS  (a  Government  provis- 
ion for  Exchange).     See  Distribution,  P.  O,  Service. 

TAX  COLLECTING  by  State  Governments. 

TREASURY  DEPARTMENTS,  National,  State,  and 
Municipal. 

LOANS.  New  York  State  has  for  many  years  loaned 
money  to  farmers. 

BUILDINGS  for  National,  State,  and  Municipal  offices 
in  every  part  of  the  Union. 

DEBT,  NATIONAL,  in  1893,  $1,545,985,686. 

DEBTS,  STATE,  in  1890,  $1,135,351,871. 

LAND,  PUBLIC,  in  1893  the  total  U.  S.  Lands  of  all 
sorts  were  1,815,424,388  acres  (including  Alaska). 


26 

School  lands  in  North  Western  United  States  have  a 
fixed  value  put  on  them  and  can  only  be  leased  till 
they  reach  this.  They  are  then  to  be  sold. 
Savannah,  Ga.,  buys  agricultural  suburban  land  by  the 
acre  and  sells  or  leases  it  in  lots  to  citizens  for  homes. 
Indian  Reservations,  June  30,  1892,  were  144,496  sq. 
mi.  Indian  population  then  was  248,340.  (June  30, 
1880,  the  Reservations  were  241,800  sq.,  mi.,  and  the 
Indian  population  255,327.) 

Massachusetts  has  a  regular  annual  report  from  the 
Trustees  of  Public  Reservations  who  care  for  her 
Public  Parks,  Parade  and  Training  Grounds,  Shores, 
&c.,  thousands  of  acres  in  all. 

In  very  numerous  ways  the  National  enterprises  are  duplicated 
in  each  of  the  47  States;  e.  g.,  in  the  departments  of  Law  and 
Order,  Relief  and  Charities,  Sanitation  and  Safety,  Distribution,  &c. 
So  again  in  cities,  i.  e.,  under  Municipal  enterprises. 

DISTRIBUTION. 

ROADS,  first-class,  260,100  mi.  in  1890.  Innumerable 
miles  of  turnpike  roads. 

STREETS  in  the  thousands  of  towns  and  cities.  (See, 
for  example,  map  of  New  York.) 

(Street  Railways  are  nearly  all  yet  under  private  owner- 
ship. A  few  towns  own  this  form  of  transit.  In  1893 
there  were  altogether  469  Electric  Street  Railways, 
covering  5,456  mi.,  and  using  7,769  motor  cars.  Capi- 
tal stock  $205,870,000.) 

STREET  LIGHTING. 

Municipal  Gas  Works.  In  the  fiscal  years  ending 
Dec.  31,  1891  and  the  middle  of  1S92,  the  following 
cities  in  the  United  States  made  and  sold  gas  : 

Name  of  City. 
Philadelphia, 
Richmond,  Va., 
Alexandria,  Va., 
Henderson,  Ky., 
Wheeling,  W.  Va., 


Beginniug  of  C: 
Ownership. 

ity 

Price  per  1000  cu.  ft, 

1841 

$1-50 

1852 

1-50 

1853 

1.44 

1867 

1-25 

1870 

•75 

27 


Bellefontaine,  O., 

1873 

1. 00 

Danville,  Va., 

1876 

1-50 

Charlottesville,  Va., 

1876 

1-50 

Hamilton,  O., 

1S90 

1. 00 

Fredericksburg,  Va., 

1891 

1.50 

Col.  Augustus  Jacobson  said  before  the  Sunset  Club  of  Chi- 
cago in  1891  that  there  were  in  the  world  then  500  gas  plants 
owned  by  municipalities,  only  10  of  them  in  the  United  States. 
Abroad  municipal  ownership  in  gas  is  as  common  as  in  water- 
works. 

Mr.  Keeler  says,  the  average  price  of  gas  in  England  is  71  c. 
a  1000  cu.  ft.  ;  on  the  Continent,  |;i.2o  ;  by  private  companies  in 
the  United  States,  I1.75 ;  in  ten  cities  under  municipal  owner- 
ship in  the  United  States,  jfi.08.  It  averages  much  cheaper 
under  public  management  and  is  always  better  quality. 

Let  us  note  the  general  result  in  two  American  cities : 

(i)  Wheeling,  IV.  Va.  The  City  bought  the  gas  plant  in  1S6S 
at  a  cost  of  $176,000.  The  price  of  gas  was  $2.50  per  1000  cu.  ft. 
Since  then  the  debt  has  been  paid  and  the  works  have  been  re- 
built out  of  the  profits.  Not  only  this,  but  the  plant  is  now  worth 
I500.000,  and  there  is  a  handsome  surplus  on  hand.  In  1888 
(with  the  price  of  gas  at  75  c),  the  Department  lighted  free  the 
streets,  markets,  school-houses,  engine-houses,  city-hall,  public 
buildings,  hospitals,  orphan's  home,  and  Y.  M.  C.  A.  rooms,  be- 
sides turning  into  the  City  treasury  $27,166  net  cash  !  Its  75  c.  rate 
is  the  lowest  in  the  United  States,  and  for  the  reason  that  its 
works  are  modern,  that  it  is  out  of  debt,  has  no  stock  and  is 
owned  by  the  City. 

(2)  New  Vork  Cily.  Observe  the  following  figures  regarding 
the  work  of  the  New  York  Gas  Company,  the  oldest  of  the  seven 
corporations  now  supplying  the  City  : 


Date. 

Cost  to  Company. 

Cost  to  Consumers. 

Dividends,  ^ 

1875 

fl.20 

$2.50 

35 

1876 

I-I3 

2.50 

15 

1881 

.70 

2.25 

22 

1882 

.70 

2.25 

25 

1883 

.70 

2.25 

25 

1884 

.66 

2.25 

25 

The  New  York  Times  said:  "On  an  investment  of  $720,000 
in  1823  the  stockholders  of  the  N.  Y.  Gas  Company  have  received 
$22,171,336,  (according  to  expert  Yalden),  or  dividends  at  47. 6^^ 
during  62  years,  and  all  the  while  the  plant  was  growing.  In 
1871  it  was  valued  at  $4,000,000.  In  1883  it  was  assessed  at  only 
$61,430,  (!)  yet  was  paying  dividends  of  over  40^  on  the  actual 
investment." 


28 

It  is  easy  to  see  why  "  the  people  cannot  manage  these  iMngsUP^ 
Municipal  Electric  Works.  The  first  municipal 
electric  plants  were  established  in  1887.  In  Dec, 
1892,  125  cities  in  the  United  States  owned  and  ope- 
rated such  plants.  Among  them  are  :  Aurora,  111., 
Bay  City,  Mich.,  Hannibal,  Mo.,  Little  Rock,  Ark., 
Michigan  City,  Ind.,  Topeka,  Kan.,  and  Chicago,  111. 
A  careful  analysis  of  reports  made  by  23  cities  opera- 
ting their  own  plants  makes  the  average  cost  per  arc- 
light  of  2000  candle-power  $53.04  per  year.  If  to  this 
be  added  12%  for  interest  on  the  starting  capital  and 
for  depreciation  of  works  ($33.60  per  light),  the  cost 
per  year  would  reach  $86.64,  at  the  utmost.  The 
same  analysis  of  reports  from  29  private  companies 
shows  an  average  of  $106.01  for  the  same  service, 
viz  :  per  arc-light  of  2000  candle-power  yearly.  New 
York  City  is  paying  $146  to  $164  a  year. 

STAGE  COACHES,  in  regions  not  reached  by  railways. 

EXPRESS  SERVICE  by  stages,  otherwise  in  the  hands 
of  private  companies. 

(Railways  all  under  private  ownership.    Principal  figures 
given  for  comparison.) 
i,8co  Corporations  managed  by  about  40  association.s.     Up  to 

Dec.  31,  1893: 

There  were  176,461  miles. 

Cost  set  down  at ^10,506,235,410 

(Includes  Stock  and  Debt.) 

Receipts  (earnings) 1,220,751,874 

Receipts  (other  income) 149,649,615 

Total  receipts 11,370,401,489 

Expenses  (operating) 827,921,299 

Profits  (total) 542,480,190 

Paid  for  Interest,  Rents,  &c 431,422,156 

Profits,  surplus 1 12,058,034 


Employees,  873,602  (increase  of  52,187  over  1892). 
Employees  in  United  States  per  100  miles  of  railway,  495 '>  »" 
Germany,  1,316;  in  Austria-Hungary,  1.074. 
Employees  killed,  2,727. 
Employees  injured,  31,729. 


29 

Others  killed,  4,320;  injured,  5,435. 

One  out  of  every  320  employees  was  killed. 

One  out  of  every  28  employees  was  injured. 

U.  S.  Railways  carried  in  1892,  575,770,000  passengers,  and  kill- 
ed 7,047  and  injured  37,164  (including  employees). 

German  Railways  carried  in  1892,  464,013,000,  and  killed  726 
and  injured  2,452. 

U.  S.  Railways  kill  or  injure  3.3  times  as  many  passengers  and 
6.2  times  as  many  employees  as  Germany,  Austria-Hungary,  and 
India  combined.  Why  ?  Answer  :  lack  of  hands,  caused  by  greed 
for  dividends,  and  expensive  management.  (See  L.  A.  Stock- 
well,  Government  Ownership  of  Railroads ;  also  Statesman's 
Yearbook,  1894 ) 

Expensive  Manageme.vt.  The  railways  of  the  United  States 
are  capitalized  to  have  cost  $10,506,235,410,  or  about  $60,000  per  mi. 
Experts  say  this  is  far  above  the  truth.  Ex-Governor  Larabee 
of  Iowa  in  his  great  work,  "The  Railroad  Question"  (p.  187), 
says:  "  It  is  safe  to  say  that  $r5,ooo  a  mile  is  a  liberal  estimate 
of  the  average  cost  of  American  railroads."  In  1S93  there  were 
176,461  miles  of  railway  in  the  United  States.  At  $25,000  a  mile, 
this  cost  $4,411,525,000.  Add  to  this,  $301,400,000  for  the  cost  of 
30,140*  locomotives  at  $10,000  each,  $80,000,000  for  the  cost  of 
26,82ot  passenger  cars,  $4oo,ooo,oc  o  for  the  cost  of  i,ooo,oooj  freight 
cars,  and  we  have  a  total  of  $5,191,925,000  (a  sum  probably  far  too 
large,  but  which  in]so  lame  a  case  as  the  one  in  hand,  we  can  gen- 
erously allow.) 

Mr.  C.  Wood  Davis,  another  expert,  hns  given  us  an  estimate 
of  the  useless  expenses  which  could  be  saved  under  Government 
ownership  : 

From  consolidation  of  depots  and  staffs $20,000,000 

From  exclusive  use  of  shortest  routes  25,000,000 

In  Attorney's  fees  and  legal  expenses 12,000,000 

Saved  on  free  passes 30,000,000 

From  abrogation  of  commission  evil 20,000,000 

By  dispensing  with  high-priced  managers,  &c 4,000,000 

By  disbanding  traffic  associations 4,oco,ooo 

By  dispensing  with  presidents,  &c 25,000,000 

By  abolishing  all  but  local  office  solicitors 15,000,000 

Avoiding  5-7  of  the  advertising  account 5,000,000 

Total  saving  yearly $160,000,000 

*In  1892  there  were  in  U.  S.  35,281  locomotives, 
tin  1892  there  were  in  U.  S.  24,881  passenger  cars,  and  7.900 
baggage  and  mail  oars. 

|ln  1893  there  were  1,168,849  freight  cars. 


30 

In  1893  the  gross  railway  income  was 1,370,401,489 

In  1893  the  operating  expenses  were 827,921,299 

Profits $542,480, 190 

Add  to  this  the  amount  saved i6o,ooo,coo 

$702,480,190 

We  have  left  a  vast  income  which  would  belong  to  the  people 
themselves,  if  they  were  wise  enough  to  see  that  they  should  at- 
tend to  their  own  business.  Under  Government  ownership  the 
fare  from  New  York  to  Chicago  would  not  exceed  $2.50,  and  to 
San  Francisco,  $10.  Moreover,  in  a  short  time,  freight  could  be 
carried  free. 

In  1894  there  were  in  the  United  States  43,000  miles  of  railway 
in  receivers'  hands.  Hence  these  are  already  run  by  the  Govern- 
ment. They  include  some  of  the  largest  systems  of  roads  in  the 
country.  But,  the  U.  S.  officers  are  carrying  them  on  for  the 
benefit  of  the  non-producing  stockholders  who  elected  incompe- 
tent managers.  Thus  we  have  the  spectacle  of  the  whole  people 
(in  the  person  of  the  General  Government)  conducting  business 
for  the  well-to-do  owners  and  handing  them  over  profits  made 
out  of  the  people  by  the  people's-paid  officials  !  ! ! 

RIVERS,  NAVIGABLE  and  CANALS,  51,800  mi. 
(Expense  under  Harbors.)  The  Erie  Canal  was  built 
1816-25. 

RIVER  IMPROVEMENT. 

HARBORS.     Improvement  in  1893,  $22,068,218. 

WHARVES  and  PIERS.  FERRIES,  Boston  has  for 
years  owned  the  Ferries  to  East  Boston. 

VIADUCTS.     In  Cleveland,  Baltimore,  &c. 

BRIDGES.  On  roads  over  all  rivers,  &c.  Brooklyn 
and  other  great  bridges. 

BRIDGE  ENGINEERS  for  cities,  towns  and  states. 

SURVEYORS.     National,  State,  and  Municipal. 

POSTAL  SERVICE.     (Report  for  June  30,  1S93.) 
Number  of  offices,  68,403. 
Delivery  offices,  6 to. 

Receipts,  ;^75>S96,933.  Expenses,  ^81,074,105.  De- 
ficit, ^5,177,172.  This  deficit  arises  from  the  fact  that 
Government  matter  is  all  carried  free.     Moreover,  the 


31 

United  States  has  more  offices  per  i,ooo  people  than 
any  other  land.     Were  the  Government  matter  reck- 
oned in  there  would  really  be  a  considerable  profit  in 
the  Postal  Department. 
Domestic  Money  Orders  issued,         -  5127,576,433 

International  Money  Orders  issued,  -  16,341,827 

Postal  Notes  issued,  -  -  12,903,076 

Total  Money  Exchange,  -      ^156,821,348 

Receipts  from  Special  Delivery  Stamps,  $337,569 

Messengers'  Fees  for  special  delivery,  -         256,592 

Profit  on  special  delivery,  -  i?So,977 

Employees  in  Railway  Mail  Service,  -  6,645 

Employees  in  U.  S.  Postal  Service,  -  229,439 

Employees  in  N.  Y.  City  Postal  Service,       -  2,873 

Postmasters'  Salaries  yearly,    -  -  $16,000,000 

Clerks'  Salaries  yearly,       _  _  _  9,700,000 

Up  to  1S45  the  postage  for  one  letter  under  30  miles  was 
6}{  cents  ;  over  30  and  under  80  miles,  10  cents  ;  over 
80  and  under  150  miles,  121-^  cents  ;  over  150  and  under 
400  miles,  i8?i;  cents;  over  400  miles,  25  cents.  In 
1845  the  rate  was  lowered  to  5  cents  for  less  and  10 
cents  for  over  300  miles.  In  1S51  letter  postage  was 
lowered  to  3  cents.  In  1883  letter  postage  was  again 
lowered  to  2  cents.     It  will  yet  be  }^  cent. 

(Telegraph.  The  Western  Union  Telegraph  Co.  has  a  monopoly. 
In  1S93,  number  of  Offices  21,078.  Length  of  line  189,936  miles, 
and  of  wire  769,201  miles.  Receipts,  $24,978,442.  Expenses, 
117,482,405.     Profits,  17,496,037. 

The  New  York  Mutual  Telegraph  Co.  has  1200  Offices,  S.ooo 
miles  of  line,  with  60,000  miles  of  wire.  Capital  Stock,  12,500,- 
000.  It  is  leased  and  operated  by  the  Western  Union  Co. 
The  total  miles  of  line  in  the  United  States  is  210,000.  There 
is  a  small  amount  of  Government  and  some  private  lines,  of 
which  the  figures  are  not  known. 
Number  of  Messages  sent,  66,591,858.) 

(Telephone.  In  1892  the  total  length  of  wire  for  all  companies 
was  440,750  miles.  The  Bell  Telephone  Co.  has  812  exchanges, 
539  branch  offices,  232,150  subscribers,  307,748  miles  of  wire, 


32 

and  9,969  employees.     Total  earnings  were  $5,100,887.     Total 

expenses,  11,689,212.     Profits  (net),  $3,411,675.     Total  capital, 

$17,500,000.     Total  dividends  paid,  $2,919,090. 

The  Long  Distance  Telephone  has  a  capital  of  $5,000,000. 

In  Telephone  privileges  and  prices  the  United  States  compare 

very  unfavorably  with  some  other  countries.) 

MARKETS    owned   by   many   cities.      They   produce 

large  revenues. 

EDUCATION. 

ARGICULTURAL  DEPARTMENT.  Cost  in  1893, 
^3,233.061. 

ARCHAEOLOGICAL  RESEARCH. 

ART  GALLERIES. 

BAND  CONCERTS  in  parks  of  numerous  cities. 

BIOLOGICAL  RESEARCH. 

BOTANIC  GARDENS. 

BOOKS  FOR  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS. 

CELEBRATIONS  AND  PARADES. 

CENSUS  BUREAUS.  CLOCKS,  TOWN. 

(Churches.  In  the  United  States  the  Church  is  in  no  way  con- 
nected with  the  State,  except  that  it  is  favored  by  being  exempt 
from  taxation.  However,  all  churches  are  semi-socialistic  in- 
stitutions. In  1893  the  number  of  churches  was  165,177,  their 
value  was  $679,030,139,  and  the  membership  was  20,612,806.) 

COAST  SURVEYS.   EDUCATIONAL  BUREAUS. 

ENGRAVING  BUREAU  at  Washington.  Employees 
in  1894,  1,350. 

ETHNOLOGICAL  BUREAU. 

EXPLORING  EXPEDITIONS. 

EXPOSITIONS   AND   FAIRS.     E.  g.,  The  World's 

Columbian  Exposition,  State  Fairs,  &c. 
GEOGRAPHICAL  SURVEYS. 
GEOLOGICAL  SURVEYS. 
LIBRARIES,  PUBLIC.     In  1893  there  were  3,804,  with 

over  1,000  volumes  each.     Total  number  of  volumes 


33 

was  31,167,354.  From  18S5  to  1891  the  increase  in 
the  number  of  libraries  was  27.35  %>  ^^^  the  increase 
in  the  number  of  volumes  was  66  %.  There  are  now 
50  volumes  for  every  100  of  population.  In  1850  there 
were  about  694  public  libraries  in  the  United  States 
with  2,201,632  volumes.  (To  illustrate  by  the  social- 
ized educational  facilities  of  a  single  city,  St.  Louis, 
Mo.,  has  14  libraries,  106  public  schools,  78  parochial 
schools,  97  school  buildings,  and  32  colleges  and  in- 
stitutions.) 

METEOROLOGICAL  BUREAUS. 

MONUMENTS  AND  STATUES. 

MUSEUMS.  NAUTICAL  ALMANAC. 

NEWSPAPERS.     The  New  York  City  Record,  &c. 

OBSERVATORIES.  PRINTING. 

READING  ROOMS. 

SCHOOLS,  PUBLIC.  In  1892  the  number  of  children. 
5  to  18  years  of  age,  was  19,192,894;  number  enrolled 
in  public  schools,  13,203,786;  and  the  number  of 
teachers,  374,431.  The  average  duration  of  schools 
was  137. 1  days. 

Kindergarten  in  189 1-2  (including  private),  1,001  ; 
teachers,  2,242  ;  pupils,  50,423. 

Primary  Schools  in  1S90  had  362,008  teachers,  and 
12,723,331  pupils.  In  additional  primary  schools  there 
were  2,960  teachers,  and  64,478  pupils.  In  Parochial 
primary  schools  there  were  16,150  teachers,  and  799, 
602  pupils. 

Secondary  (Public  High  Schools)  in  1890  numbered 
2,526,  with  9,120  teachers,  and  202,963  pupils. 
Colleges  and  Universities  (of  liberal  arts)  in  1890 
numbered  415  ;  teachers,  7,623  ;  and  students,  94,892, 
36  of  these  are  endowed  with  national  land  grants. 
Colleges  for  Women  165,  with  2,815  teachers,  and 
24,611  students. 


34 

Normal  Schools  in   1S92  numbered  139,  with   1,578 
teachers,  and  40,214  students.     In  1890  the  value  of 
special  Normal  School  property  was  ;$io,552,744. 
Law  Schools  in  1890  numbered  54,  with  507  profes- 
sors, and  6,073  students. 

Medical,  Dental,  &c.,  Schools  in  1890  numbered 
228,  teachers  3,987,  and  students  24,242.  This  in- 
cluded 36  schools  for  Trained  Nurses,  with  319 
teachers,  and  1,552  students. 

Theological  Seminaries  145  in  1890,  with  854  pro- 
fessors, and  7,729  students. 

Reformatory  Schools  in  1S90  had  14,846  pupils. 
Indian  Schools  in  1890  numbered  256,  with  .12,232 
pupils.     Cost  $1,600,313. 

Domestic  Economy  Schools,  a  new  and  promising 

field. 

Agricultural  Colleges  in  many  States. 

Technological  Institutes  in  1890  numbered  27,  with 

447  instructors,  and  3,584  students. 

Industrial  Schools  in  36  city  public  schools,  and  in 

many  schools  for  colored  pupils  (reaching  over  12,400 

colored  children). 

Military   School   at  West   Point,    has    300   cadets. 

Cost  in  1893,  $428,917. 

Nautical  School  at  Annapolis,  has  336  marines. 
Blind  Schools.     In  1890  there  were  $s  public,  hav- 
ing 438  teachers,  and  3,215  pupils. 
Deaf  and  Dumb.     In  1890  there  were  61  public,  hav- 
ing 763  teachers,  and  10,799  pupils. 
Expense.    The  general  Government  expended  in  1892, 
;gi55, 980,800.     (In  1890,  ;$i43,i  10,218.)     In  1892,  the 
cost  per  year  per  pupil   was  $17.22,  and    12.9  cents 
per  day. 

In  1890  there  were  224,839  school  houses.  The  value 
of  school  property  was  estimated  at  $342,876,492. 


ZOOLOGICAL  GARDENS  in  parks  of  great  cities. 
ZOOLOGICAL  RESEARCH. 

FOOD  PRODUCTION. 

In  enterprises  of  production  the  L^nited  States,  as  a 

Government,  has  undertaken  very  little. 

DISTILLERIES  and  the  sale  of  liciuors  in  South 
Carolina. 

FARMING  has  been  undertaken  by  some  cities  for  one 
or  another  motive.     £•  g-,  Worcester,  Mass. 

FISH  COMMISSIONS  for  encouragement  of  fish  cul- 
ture and  for  biographical  research. 

IRRIGATION  in  Colorado  and  other  Western  regions, 
(See  also  Gas  and  Electricity  under  Distribution,  and  Water 
Works  under  Sanitation  and  Safety.) 

MEANS  PRODUCTION. 

DRY  DOCK.  The  U.  S.  Dry  Dock  in  Brooklyn  cost 
over  ;g2,ooo,ooo.  and  has  no  equal  in  the  world. 

ENGINEERING  DEPARTMENT. 
FOUNDRIES  in  the  Ship  Yards,  &c. 

ROPE  WALKS  (manufacture  of  ropes)  in  the  Navy 
Yards. 

SHIP  BUILDING.  The  new  cruisers,  Cincinnati  and 
Raleigh,  are  Government  built  throughout.  So  wcie 
the  old  Merrimac,  Portsmouth,  &c.  The  Navy  Yard 
in  Brooklyn  employs  over  2,000  men.  The  Govern- 
ment property  there  covers  144  acres  and  has  Jj  a 
mile  water  front. 

LAW  AND  ORDER. 

ACCOUNTS  COMMISSIONERS  in  City  and  State 
employ. 

AMBASSADORS.  Cost  of  Consular  and  Diplomatic 
service  in  1893,  ;^i, 604, 312.  There  were  over  148  such 
representatives  abroad. 


36 

APPORTIONING  BOARDS  for  townships,  cities, 
states  and  nation. 

APPRAISING  COMMISSIONERS  for  same. 

AQUEDUCT  COMMISSIONERS. 

ARBITRATION  COMMISSIONERS  in  various  states. 

ASSAYING  OFFICERS,  national  and  state. 

ASSESSING  BOARDS  for  every  municipality. 

ATTORNEYS,  U.  S.  District.     In  1893,  74. 

AUDITING  BOARDS  in  every  town,  &c. 

BANKRUPT  REGISTRY— a  very  important  feature. 
It  makes  a  transition  phase  between  individualism 
and  collectivism.  In  our  age  the  Government  is  the 
Receiver  with  the  expectation  of  passing  the  business 
back  to  individuals  after  settlement. 

CITY  CHAMBERLAINS. 

CIVIL  REGISTRATION. 

CIVIL  SERVICE  BOARDS.  Salaries  of  the  Federal 
civil  service  list  (of  which  this  Board  has  some  over- 
sight) are  $60,000,000. 

COMPTROLLERS.  CONSULS. 

COPYRIGHT  BUREAU  at  Washhigton,  D.  C. 

CORONERS  in  all  countries. 

CORPORATION  COUNSELS  for  large  city  govern- 
ments. 

COURTS  OF  JUSTICE. 
National: 
Supreme,   U.    S.       9    judges;    salaries    ^10,500    and 
;^  1 0,000  each. 

Circuit,   U.   S.       19   judges    over   9    circuits;    salaries 
;^6,ooo  each. 

Claims,  U.  S.      n  chief  and  63  other  judges  ;  salaries 
;^5,ooo  each. 
National   expenditure    in    Department    of    Justice   in 

1893,  ;^7, 890,751- 


37 

State  and  City  : 

Oyer  and  Terminer.  District. 

General  Sessions.  Arbitration. 

Superior.  Military. 

Common  Pleas.  Commercial. 

Surrogate.  Commissions. 

CUSTOMS  COLLECTING  in  1S93  cost  $6,756,791. 
DOCK  BOARDS  in  large  sea-port  towns. 
ELECTIONS  BUREAUS. 
JURY  COMMISSIONERS  in  every  circuit  and  district 

court. 
JURIES,  GRAND,  for  same. 
JURIES,  PETIT,  for  same. 
LABOR  BUREAU,  a  Department  at  Washington,  and 

of  the  greatest  importance.      Efficiently  managed  by 

Chief  Carroll  D.  Wright. 
LEGISLATIVE  ASSEMBLIES : 

National:  Senate,  88  members;  House,  356. 

State :  type  of  the  National  reproduced  in  44  States. 

Municipal  or  Aldermanic  Councils  in  all  cities. 
MARRIAGES  conducted  on  a  civil  basis  by  legally 

qualified  magistrates  or  clergymen. 
MARSHALS,  U.  S.  District.     74  in  1S93. 
MINISTERS,  FOREIGN.     Sec  under  Ambassadors. 
MUNICIPAL  SERVICE   EXAMINING   BOARDS. 

One  of  the  most  important  social  factors.     The  best 

method  of  filling  offices  and  preventing  corruption. 
PARK  COMMISSIONERS. 
PATENT  OFFICE  at  Washington.     In  1 S93  there  were 

45.936  applications,  and  25.356  patents  were  granted. 

Receipts,  ^1,288,809.     Expenses,  ;^i, 139, 715.     Profits, 

;^i49,o94.     From  1837  to  1893  there  were  872,995  ap- 
plications, 500,543  patents  issued,  and  a  net  profit  of 

$5,456,454. 
PILOT  BOARDS.  PORT  WARDENS. 


38 

POLICE  in  all  cities — complex  systems  for  the  enforce- 
ment of  laws. 
POUNDS,  town  prisons  for  stray  animals. 

PRISONS  : 

Police  Stations.  Jails. 

Houses  of  Juvenile  Correction  at  the  end  of  1S93  had 
14,846  inmates. 
Reformatories. 

Penitentiaries  in  1S90  had  45,233  convicts.  Of  these 
30,546  were  white,  14,687  colored,  and  1,791  were 
women.  Of  the  whites  12,842  were  native,  7,267  for- 
eign, and  8,331  half-foreign. 

RAILROAD  COMMISSIONS.     A  National  and  also 
a  State  Department. 

REGISTRARS  OF  DEEDS  in  all  county  seats. 

REVENUE  GUTTERS.     RIVER  COMMISSIONS. 

SECRET  SERVICE. 

SINKING  FUND  COMMISSIONERS  for  towns  and 
states. 

ST.A.TE     DEPARTMENT,    U.    S.         Cost    in     1S93, 

J§2, 138,953. 

SUBWAY  COMMISSIONERS. 

TREASURY,   U.   S.     Salaries  of  Government  officers 
in  1893,  $7,364,536. 

RELIEF  AND  CHARITIES. 

The  details  of  this  division  would  fill  many  volumes. 
Every  well  organized  township,  town,  city,  county,  or 
state  has  numerous  provisions  for  relief  of  those  who  are 
unable  to  stand  the  strains  of  individualistic  society,  i.e., 
of  a  social  order  based  on  the  laissc::  faire  theory. 
CHARITY  BUREAUS  innumerable. 
DISPENSARIES  innumerable. 


39 

HOMES  for  : 
Orphans.  Idiots. 

Sailors.  Soldiers. 

27  National  and  State  Homes  for  Soldiers  and  Vol- 
unteers. 

HOSPITALS  : 

General.  Epidemic. 

Infant.  Insane. 

Military.  Marine. 

HOUSE  OF  REFUGE. 

INDIAN  DEPARTMENT.  In  1892,  $1 1,150,578  were 
spent  through  66  Indian  agencies. 

LEPER  FARM.     One  at  New  Orleans. 

LIFE  SAVING.    244  Stations.    Cost  in  1893,  ^1.231,893. 

LIGHT  HOUSES  in  1893,  1,312;  39  light-ships;  303 
signals;  4,491  buoys;  1,808  post-lights;  40  steam- 
tenders,  &c.;  3,463  employees. 

PENSION     DEPARTMENT.       In    1893    there    were 
granted  $159,357,558  to  966,012  pensioners. 

POOR  HOUSES.  In  1890  the  total  indoor  paupers 
were  73,045,  of  which  40,741  were  males,  and  32,304 
females.  The  total  outdoor  paupers  reported  were 
24,220  (probably  far  too  low).  P^xpense  of  Poor 
Houses,  $2,409,445. 

SIGNAL  CORPS,  a  National  Department. 

UNEMPLOYED,  WORK  FOR.  Ohio  has  a  Public 
Employment  Bureau — Act  of  May  6,  1890.  Head 
offices  at  Cincinnati,  Cleveland,  Columbus,  Dayton, 
and  Toledo.  Up  to  Jan.  i,  1S93,  they  had  filled  38,352 
positions  out  of  81,464  total  applications.  (See  Ohio 
Labor  Bureau  Reports.)  (Compare  New  Zealand, 
France,  Germany,  and  .Switzerland.) 

SANITATION  ANJD  SAFETY. 

BATHS,  PUBLIC,  in  many  cities. 


40 

CATS  in  Postal  Service.  Something  over  300  cats  are 
kept  in  about  50  of  the  leading  post  offices.  They 
protect  the  mail  in  cellars,  &c.,  from  rats  and  mice. 
Each  postmaster  is  allowed  from  $S  to  ;$4o  per  year 
for  the  keep  of  his  feline  staff.* 

CEMETERIES.  There  are  79  National  cemeteries  and 
innumerable  municipal  ones. 

DRINKING  FOUNTS  AND  TROUGHS  in  town  and 
country. 

ELECTRIC  LIGHTING.     See  under  Distribution. 

FIRE  ALARM  TELEGRAPH  in  connection  with 
Fire  Departments. 

FIRE  DEPARTMENTS  in  every  city  and  town. 

FORESTRY.  There  are  Forest  Commissions  and  Bu- 
reaus in  New  York,  Colorado,  South  Dakota,  Penn- 
sylvania, New  Hampshire,  and  Ohio.  Arbor  Day  is 
observed  in  42  states.  The  President  has  Forest  Res- 
ervation power. 

FOUNTAINS  for  beautifying  parks  and  squares  in  many 
cities. 

GARBAGE  AND  REFUSE  GATHERING.  A  muni- 
cipal undertaking  in  all  cities. 

GAS  LIGHTING.     See  under  Distribution. 

HEALTH  DEPARTMENTS,  state  and  municipal. 

[from  the  BALTIMORE  AMERICAN.] 

*One  of  the  most  amusing  letters  .ever  received  "at  the  Post 
Office  Department  in  Washington  came  from  the  Post  Office  in 
St.  Paul,  Minn.  It  is  an  appeal  for  an  increase  in  the  fund  allowed 
for  the  sustenance  of  the  office  cat,  and  is  a  record  of  the  efficiency 
of  the  aforesaid  cat,  made  out  as  carefully  and  as  conscientiously 
as  the  record  of  any  clerk  or  carrier  in  the  office.  The  petition  is 
as  follows : 

Post  Office,  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  Oct.  21,  1894. 
Respectfully  referred  to  P.  O'Brien,  Assistant  Postmaster, 
for  consideration  : 

Is  it  possible,  in  making  your  estimates  and  allowances  for 
1895,  to  secure  ten-dollars  "cat  fund"?  Five  dollars,  as  at  present, 
is  not  enough,  as  the  following  figures  show : 


41 

PARKS,  national,  state,  and  town — everywhere. 
PHYSICIANS  P^OR  THE  CITY,  included  in  Health 

Department. 
PILOT  COMMISSIONERS. 
PLAY  GROUNDS  in  some  towns   and  cities — though 

far  too  few. 
QUARANTINE  at  sea-ports. 

SANITARIES  in  places  much  frequented  by  the  public. 
SEATS  IN  PARKS. 
SEWERAGE  AND  DRAINAGE,   always  built    and 

managed  by  municipal  anthorities.     Also  certain  great 

State  undertakings  in  draining  large  areas. 
STREET  CLEANING,  a  strictly  municipal  business, 

but  often  contracted. 
STREET  SPRINKLING,  often  municipal,  often  not. 

VACCINATION  AND  VACCINE,  done  and  supplied 

by  some  Boards  of  Health. 
WATER-WORKS.     On  July  i,  1891  : 

Total  number  in  U.  S.  2,037. 

Cities,  towns,  &c.,  supplied  2,187. 

Population  served  22,814,061. 

(About  36%  of  population.) 

Estimated  cost  of  all  $543,000,000. 

In  1800  there  were  but  16  towns  having  water-works. 

Boston  water-works,  under  company  ownership,  dates 

The  cat  ought  to  have  one  pint  of  milk  a  day — equals  365  pints. 
The  price  in  Winter  is  6  cents  per  quart,  and  5  cents  in  Summer. 
This  would  make  the  exact  cost  I10.04.  When  the  kitten  harvest 
is  on,  more  milk  ought  to  be  given,  so  above  estimate  is  not  ex- 
orbitant. Kittens  ought  to  be  kept  until  well  able  to  set  up  house- 
keeping on  their  own  account,  as  an  incentive  for  their  mother  to 
keep  up  her  rat-killing.  Our  cat  the  past  two  months  has  killed 
not  less  than  125  rats,  the  two  highest  runs  being  9  and  7,  which, 
you  will  admit,  were  both  good  nights'  work.  Of  course,  she  and 
her  two  kittens  could  not  eat  all  these,  but  it  shows  what  a  good 
working  cat  can  do  when  she  has  the  proper  incentives. 

William  J.  Work,  Night  Clerk. 


42 

from    1652.     Bethlehem,   Pa.,   comes  next,    1761.     In 

1850  there  were  but    83    plants.      In    iSSo   only  598. 

In   1890  there  were   1,878. 

Under  public  ownership  878  or  43.1%. 

Under  private  ownership  1,159  or  56.9%. 

In   1800  the  municipally-owned  water-works  were  but 

6.3%  while  the  Company-owned   were   93.7%   of  the 

16  plants  then  built.  Now  43- 1%  are  public  works, 
and  these  supply  66.2%  of  the  22,814,061  people  sup- 
plied. 

Of  the  10  largest  cities  in  the  United  States,  all  but 
San  Francisco  and  New  Orleans  own  their  Water- 
Works.     83  private  plants  have  become  public ;  only 

17  public  ones  have  become  private.  These  latter 
have  all  occured  since  1878,  and  have  been  occa- 
sioned by  hard  times  and  heavy  city  burdens,  mostly 
at  the  South.  New  Orleans  is  the  only  large  city 
(242,039)  among  the  number.  Hoboken,  N.  J.,  (43. 
64S)  and  Peoria,  111.,  (41,024)  are  next.  None  of  the 
others  are  above  21,000,  and  most  of  them  are  mere 
towns.  6,177,184  population  are  represented  by  the 
changes  from  private  to  public  ownership,  while  but 
429,090  population  are  represented  by  change  from 
public  to  private. 

GOVERNMENT  INTERFERENCE 

In  Businesses,  Affairs  or  Events  which  it  requires  shall 
be  REGISTERED,  LICENSED  or  INSPECTED. 

See  the  list  under  New  York  City,  headed  City  Interference, 
and  the  following  additional  : 

Asphalt  Factories.  Asylums. 

Banks.  Bird  Stores. 

Blacking  Factories.  Blacksmith  Shops. 

Boiler  Factories.  Bone  Yards. 

Box  Factories.  Butcher  Shops. 

Candy  Factories.  Carpenter  Shops. 

Cattle  Yards.  Cheese  Factories. 

Cigar  Factories.  Clothing  Factories, 


43 


Clothes  Cleaning. 

Cold  Storage. 

Drug  Mills. 

Dye  Works. 

Electric  Lamps. 

Excavations. 

Ferries. 

Foundries. 

Gaming  Houses. 

Gas  Stoves. 

Grocery  Stores. 

Hat  Stores. 

Hide  Cellars. 

Hospitals. 

Ice  Factories. 

Kindling-wood  Factories. 

Leather  Factories. 

Locomotives. 

Machine  Shops. 

Matches. 

Mines. 

Newsboys. 

Offal  Wagons. 

Oyster  Saloons. 

Patents. 

Piano  Playing. 

Piers. 

Playing  Card  ^lakers. 

Printing  Houses. 

Railway  Depots. 

Sausage  Works. 

Schools. 

Smelting  W'orks. 

Smoke  Houses. 

Soap  Factories. 

Steam  Heating  Pipes. 

Trade  Marks. 


Coal  Yards. 

Copyrights. 

Dumps  for  Garbage. 

Dynamos. 

Elevator  Factories. 

Fat  Rendering. 

P^ish  Markets. 

Fur  Dressing. 

Gas  Engines. 

Grease  W^orks. 

Gut  Cleaning. 

Hair  Picking. 

Hide  Cleaning. 

Hunting. 

Iron  Works. 

Laundries. 

Lime-kilns. 

Lotteries.^ 

Markets. 

Mattress  Factories. 

Molding  Mills. 

Offal  Docks. 

Oil  Works. 

Passports. 

Piano  Factories. 

Pickle  Factories. 

Planing  Mills. 

Ponds  of  Water. 

Rag  Shops. 

Rubber  Goods  Factories, 

Saw  Mills, 

Silk  Works. 

Spice  Mills. 

Steam  Engines. 

Stone  Yards. 

Storage  Warehouses. 


44 


UNITED  KINGDOM. 

(great    BRITAIN    AND    IRELAND  ) 

AREA,  120,973  sq.  mi.        POPULATION,  38,104,973  m  1891. 

Mr.  H.  M.  Hyndman  (in  his  "Commercial  Crises  of  the  Nine- 
teenth Century")  says  :  "  In  Great  Britain  the  State  is  by  far  the 
greatest  employer  of  labor  and  also  the  greatest  consumer."  It 
is  also  indirectly  a  great  employer  and  consumer,  in  this  way. 
There  must  always  be  a  vast  multitude  engaged  in  supplying 
food,  clothes,  boots,  coal,  iron,  brass,  implements,  &c.,  for  the 
Government  servants  (national  and  municipal,  in  the  army,  navy, 
militia,  civil  service,  &c.) 

DEFENSE  OF  NATION. 

ARMY,  Regular,  on  March  ist,  1894,  total  154,442. 

Officers,  7,497.  Men  146,945. 

Forts  numerous. 

Expense  of  Army  for  1894,  ;^2o, 750,651.      (Includes 

Militia  and  Pensions.) 
MILITIA  on  March  ist,  1894,  total  495, o57- 
NAVY  in  1893,  76,700. 

Battle  Ships,  45.    ^  Port  Defense  Ships,  18. 

Cruisers,  287.  Torpedo  Boats,  136. 

Total  War  Vessels,  486. 

Expense  of  Navy  in  1884,  ^^15, 267, 674. 

FINANCE. 

(Banks,  Private.  Of  138  London  Joint-Stock  Banks  re- 
porting in  1S93,  the  average  dividend  for  their  last 
business  year  was  ii%.) 

BANKS,  SAVINGS  :  in  all  Money  Order  Post  Offices. 
These  have  been  very  successful.  They  were  founded 
1861.     From  then  till  1S90  there  had  been  113.000,000 


45 

deposits  amounting  to  ^285,000,000  (or  $1,387,950,- 
000).  There  had  been  over  15,000,000  accounts 
opened  and  10,000,000  closed.  At  the  end  of  i8go 
there  were  nearly  5,000.000  depositors,  and  ;^67,ooo,- 
000  (or  ^326,290,000)  deposited.  The  total  cost  of 
management  had  been  ;^326,394  (or  1^1,589, 538). 
Since  1876  there  has  annually  been  paid  over  to  the 
Exchequer  sums  which  make  a  total  now  of  about 
;i^i,5oo,ooo  (or  $7,305,000).  There  is  now  still  a  sur- 
plus (over  liabilities)  of  ;^i,730,ooo  (or  $8,425,100) 
for  the  Government. 
COINAGE.     Royal  Mint  issue  from    1870  up  to  Dec. 

31st,     1892,    ;^l  I  1,298,918. 

CUSTOMS  DEPARTMENT  (Foreign  Revenue). 

INTERNAL  REVENUE  DEPARTMENT. 

NOTE  ISSUE.     Monopoly  by  Bank  of  England  under 

Government  control. 
TAX  COLLECTING  DEPARTMENT. 
TREASURY  DEPARTMENT. 

DISTKIBUTION. 

ROADS,   118,000  mi.  in   1890. 

STREETS.  Municipal  property  in  all  the  hundreds  of 
cities. 

STREET  RAILWAYS.  In  1890  29  cities  in  England 
and  3  in  Scotland  owned  their  street  railways.  Among 
them  are  Liverpool,  Birmingham,  Manchester,  Shef- 
field, Huddersfield,  Newcastle-on-Tyne,  Glasgow,  and 
lately  London  has  purchased  2 1  mi.  and  proposes  to 
buy  more. 

(Street  Railways  under  private  ownership,  960  mi.  in  1893.  Cost 
/i3,7oS,549.  Receipts  in  1893,  /3,6o6,095.  Expenses,  /2,837.- 
446.  Profits,  ;^76S,649.  This  and  much  more  would  be  saved 
to  the  cities  if  they  owned  their  own  equipmeni.) 

STREET  LIGHTING.  162  cities  and  towns  in  Eng- 
land, Wales,  and  Scotland  owned  and  operated  their 


46 


gas  plants  in  1890.  Many  of  them  also  own  their 
electric  plants.  The  list  and  the  price  paid  for  gas  is 
as  follows  : 


England  and  Wales 


City. 

Aberavon : 

Ashton  in-Makerfield 

Atherton 

Abergavenny 

Audley 

Bangor 

Barrow-in-Furness 

Batley 

Bethesda 

Beverley .*. . 

Bingley 

Birkenhead 

Birmingham 

Bristol 

Blackburn 

Blackpool 

Bollington 

Bolton 

Bradford 

Brignorth 

Brighouse 

Briton  Ferry 

Burnley 

Burslem 

Burton-upon-Trent 

Buxton 

Bury 

Carlisle 

Carnar.van 

Chorley 

Cieckheaton 

Clitheroe 

Cockermouth 

Colne  and  Marsden,  (Lan- 
cashire  

Congleton 

Conway 

Coventry 

Darlington 


Cost  per  1000 
cu.  ft. 


'  -95 

i.oS 
.So 
.78 
.90 

1.20 
.84 
.78 

1.50 
.90 
.68 
.70 
•52 
.78 

•74 
.68 
.80 
.64 

•53 
1. 14 

•50 
.72 

•54 
.76 
.68 
.76 
•58 
.60 
.95 
.78 
.69 
.84 
.96 


.68 

•75 

1.08 

.72 

•52 


City. 


Cost  per  1000 
cu.  ft. 


Darwen $  .78 

Denton  and  Haughton  . .     .So 

Devizes 80 

Dewsbury 72 

Droitvvich 94 

Dukinfield 80 

East  Dereham 1.08 

East  Retford 80 

Evesham i  .00 

Ellismere 1.18 

Festiniog ...   1.32 

Fenton 48 

Halifax 52 

Haverfordwest    1.20 

Haverhill 1.30 

Haworth 78 

Hereford 52 

Heywood 90 

Hinckley 90 

Hindley 86 

Horncastle 76 

Huddersfield 63 

Ilkeston 62 

Keighley 60 

Knausborough.. 60 

Lancaster 60 

Leeds 42 

Leek 58 

Leicester 56 

Leigh 72 

Lincoln 64 

Llandudno 1.14 

Longton 72 

Lynn i.co 

Lytham 84 

Macclesfield 72 

Malvern 96 

Manchester 64 

Mansfield 76 


47 


Cost  per  1  ono 
City.  cu.  ft. 

Marple $  .80 

Marsden,  (Yorkshire) 80 

Maryport 72 

Middlesborough 62 

Middleton 90 

Millom So 

Milton 90 

Mossley 74 

Milford i.oS 

Newbury 1.08 

Neath 90 

Nelson 66 

Newcastle-under  Lyme...     .72 

Newton-in-Makerfield.  . .     .54 

Nottingham 52 

Oldbury 63 

Oldham 54 

Oswaldtwisble 66 

Padiham  and  Hapten 75 

Penrith 74 

Ramsgate 76 

Ripon 80 

Rochdale 78 

Rotherham 54 

St.  Mary  Church 96 

St.  Helen's 70 

SafTron  Walden i.io 

Salford 72 

Silsden 90 

Scotland  : 

Aberdeen 90 

Alloa 90 

Alva 1.20 

Arbroath i.oo 

Ardrossan i.co 

Bruntisland 1.20 

Broughby  Ferry ...     .95 

Dumbarton 84 

Dumfries 90 

Dunbar.   1.50 

Dundee 88 

Elgin 1.40 

Forfar 1.05 

Glasgow 72 


Cost  ppr  1000 
Citij.  cu.  ft. 

Skelmersdale $  .90 

Smethwick 60 

Southport 66 

Sowerby 70 

Sjjalding 90 

Stafford 72 

Staleybridge 76 

Stockport 60 

Stoke-upon-Trent 54 

Stratford-upon-Avon 76 

Stockton  on  Tees. ..... .     .60 

Sutton-in-Ashfield 80 

Teignmouth i.oo 

Tipton 52 

Tow  Lan '. 95 

Tredegar 1.08 

Tyldesley-with-.Shakerley  .82 

Ulverston 90 

Wallasey 72 

Watsall •.     .50 

Wantage i  .co 

Wombwell .    78 

Workington 70 

Warrington 84 

Wells 80 

West  Bromwick 52 

Widnas 48 

Wigan 67 

Vnyscynhaiern 1.30 

Gou rock I.IO 

Greenock 90 

Hamilton 80 

Inverness i.oo 

Johnstone 1.05 

Kilmarnock i.co 

Kirpintillock i.oo 

Paisley 72 

Perth .90 

Peterhead   1.43 

Port  Glasgow i  .08 

Renfrew i  .cx) 

Wishaw I.oo 


48 

EXPRESS  SERVICE  in  the  parcel  post.     Limit  of  ii 

pounds. 
(Railways  are  all  under  private  ownership.     In  1892,  20,325  mi. 

Cost  ^944,357,320.     Receipts,  ^82,092,040.) 

RIVERS,  NAVIGABLE,  3,800  mi. 

(Canals,  3,813  mi.  in  1892,  all  belonging  to  private  companies.) 

HARBORS,  a  special  department  of  Government. 

WHARVES  AND  PIERS. 

FERRIES.  VIADUCTS. 

BRIDGES,  innumerable  numbers  at  incalculable  ex- 
pense. 

BRIDGE  ENGINEERS. 

POSTAL  SERVICE  in  1893  : 

Number  of  Offices,  19,625.  Employees,  about  26S,- 
000,  (16,000  of  whom  are  women).  All  are  appointed 
for  life  or  during  good  behavior,  except  the  Post 
Master  General.  Receipts,  ^10,344,000.  Expenses, 
^7,518,000.  Profits,  ^2,826,000.  Money  Orders  is- 
sued, ;^28,683,95i. 

TELEGRAPH,  State  Lines,  34,056  mi.  in  1893.  Wire, 
209,046  mi.  (exclusive  of  Railway  companies*  wire). 
Offices,  8,537  (45  are  in  Post  Offices).  Rate,  6  d.  for 
12  words.  Receipts,  ;{^2, 487,000.  Expenses,  ^2,568,- 
000.  Deficit,  ^81,000.  This  is  the  first  deficit  since 
1876.  Observe,  however,  the  large  profit  surplus  of 
the  Post  Office. 

TELEPHONES. 

SUBWAYS  in  Glasgow,  and  under  Thames  in  London, 
for  wagons  and  foot  traffic. 

MARKETS.  HOTELS. 

RESTAURANTS. 

EDUCATION. 

AGRICULTURAL  BUREAUS. 
ART  GALLERIES. 


49 

ARCHAEOLOGICAL  RESEARCH. 

BAND   CONCERTS,  in  London  Parks,  also  in  other 
great  cities. 

BIOLOGICAL  RESEARCH. 

BOTANIC  GARDENS.      CENSUS  BUREAUS. 

CHURCHES,  STATE : 

In  England,  Protestant  Episcopal.  In  1S91,  2  Arch- 
bishops, 31  Bishops,  30  Deans,  85  Archdeacons,  613 
Rural  Deans.  There  were  14,5 73  registered  chapels 
and  churches  in  1882.  Total  clergy  of  all  grades  in 
1891,  27,000.  Total  income,  ;^7,ooo,ooo.  About  Yi 
of  the  population  are  members. 

In  Scotland,  Chnrch  of  Scotland  (Presbj-terian).  In 
1893  there  were  1,348  parishes;  1,700  chapels,  church- 
es, &c.;  and  1,800  clergy.  Th-e  income  from  annual 
endowment  was  ^350,000.  From  additional  sources, 
^560,588.  Total  income,  ;^9io,5SS  la  1892  the  total 
membership  was  604,984. 

(In  Ireland,  the  Protestant  P^piscop<il  Church  was  dis' 
established  in  1869.) 

CLOCKS,  TOWN.  COAST  SirVlVKYS. 

EDUCATIONAL  BUREAUS. 

ENGRAVING  BUREAUS. 

ETHNOLOGICAL  BUREAUS. 

EXPLORING  EXPEDITIONS. 

EXPOSITIONS.  FAIRS. 

GP:0GRAPHICAL  and  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEYS. 

LIBRARIES,  in  all  towns  and  cities. 

METEOROLOGICAL  BUREAUS. 

MONUMENTS  AND  STATUES. 

MUSEUMS,   numerous  and  celebrated :   British,    Ken- 
sington, &c. 

OBSERVATORIES,  Greenwich,  &c. 

PRINTING.  READING  ROOMS. 


50 

SCHOOLS,  PUBLIC  : 

Kindergartens  constitute  about  ^:^  %  of  the  Primary 

Schools. 

Primary,  in  1891,  97,933  teachers,  and  6,184,858  pupils. 

Secondary,   entirely   unorganized.     Statistics    impos- 
sible. 

Colleges,  in  1893,  68,  with.  1,397  teachers,  and  22,857 

students. 

Colleges  for  Women,  in  1S93,  6,  with  70  instructors, 

and  482  students. 

Universities.  Normal,  41. 

Law.  Mecical. 

Theological.  Technological. 

Art,   in    1893,    1,631    schools,   with   115,848  students. 

The  Government  grant  for  Art  Schools  in   1893  was 

;^645,oi5. 

Domestic  Economy.  Industrial. 

Agricultural.  Evening. 

Military.  Nautical. 

Blind.  Deaf  and  Dumb. 

The  Government  grant  for  schools  in  1893  was  ;i^7,9i5,- 

540:  the  fees,  local  rates,  &c.  were  £2,^6^,i;^2.     Total 

ascertained   expense   of  public   schools   in    1893   was 

;^io,48o,672.      The    Financial    Budget   for    1894   esti- 
mates the  Government  grant  at  ^^9, 172,2 16. 
ZOOLOGICAL  GARDENS. 
ZOOLOGICAL  RESEARCH. 

In  1833  Parliament  first  voted  money  towards  building 
schools.  In  1839  a  "Committee  of  Council  on  PLduca- 
tion  "  was  appointed.  The  same  year  Normal  schools 
were  established.  The  "  Elementary  Educational  Act 
for  England  and  Wales"  was  passed  in  1870. 

MEANS  PRODUCTION. 

CLOTHING,  for  the  Army  was  undertaken  by  the  Gov- 
ernment after  the  Crimean  War  (1854-56),  because  of 
the  swindling  practices  of  contractors. 


61 

DRY  DOCKS  (Naval). 
ENGINEERING  DEPARTMENT. 
SHIP  BUILDING,  for  the  Navy. 

LAW  AND  ORDER. 

The    total   cost  of  Law  and   Justice  to  the    General 
Government  in  1893-94  was  ^3,800,481.     The  State  De- 
partment cost  ;i^2,624,7o6  additional. 
AMBASSADORS.     Cost  of  Diplomatic  and  Consular 

service  in  1893-94  was  ;^448,ioi. 

APPORTIONING  BOARDS. 

APPRAISING  COMMISSIONERS. 

ASSAYING  COMMISSIONERS. 

ASSESSING  BOARDS.     AUDITING  BOARDS. 

BANKRUPT  REGISTRY,  a  special  Department.  This 
is  a  very  important  feature,  since  it  is  a  transition  from 
individualism  to  collectivism.  The  Government  is  the 
receiver  of  the  unsquandered  assets,  but  with  the  ex- 
pectation of  passing  the  business  back  after  settle- 
ments have  all  been  made. 

CIVIL  SERVICE  BOARDS,  a  special  Department. 

COMPTROLLERS.  CONSULS. 

COPYRIGHT  BUREAUS.     CORONERS. 

CORPORATION  COUNSELS. 

COURTS  OF  JUSTICE,  too  numerous  and  comple.x 
to  describe  here.  They  employ  a  very  large  number. 
Civil.  Criminal. 

Supreme.  Circuit. 

Claims.  Police. 

Ecclesiastical. 

ENCUMBRANCE  BUREAUS. 

EXECUTIVE  DEPARTMENT.  The  Queen,  her  Min- 
isters, and  Privy  Council,  with  their  hosts  of  assistants. 

EMIGRATION  BUREAUS.  From  Ireland  alone  from 
1851  to  1S92  inclusive,  there  emigrated  3,518,383. 


52 

INTERCOLONIAL  COMMERCE  COMMISSIONS: 

Colonial  Office,  &c. 

JURY  COMMISSIONERS.     JURIES,  GRAND. 

JURIES,  PETIT.  LABOR  BUREAU. 

LEGISLATIVE  ASSEMBLIES  : 

National  :  House  of  Lords,  560,  including  5  princes, 
2  archbishops,  21  dukes,  22  marquises,  115  earls,  25 
viscounts,  24  bishops,  304  barons,  16  Scottish  peers, 
28  Irish  peers.  (There  are  6  peeresses.)  The  Eng- 
lish House  of  Lords  is  the  only  wholly  hereditary 
legislative  chamber  now  in  the  world. 
House  of  Commons,  670,  including  461  English  mem- 
bers, 34  Welsh,  72  Scotch,  and  103  Irish. 
Provincial.  Municipal. 

MARRIAGES. 

MINISTERS,  FOREIGN.     See  under  Ambassadors. 

NATURALIZATION  (branch  of  Home  Department 
of  State). 

PARK  COMMISSIONERS.     PILOT  BOARDS. 

PATENT  OFFICES. 

POLICE,  in  1893:  in  Scotland  there  were  2,791  police, 
and  1,608  constables.  (In  Glasgow,  1,256  police.) 
(In  London  about  15,000  police  and  only  about  6,000 
teachers.) 

POUNDS. 

PRLSONS  : 

Police  Stations.  yails. 

Criminal  Lunatic. 

Houses  of  yuvenile  Correction. 

Military.  Reformatories. 

Naval.  Poiitentiaries. 

RAILROAD  COMMISSIONS  (including  canal). 

REGISTRARS  OF  DEEDS. 

RIVER  COMMISSIONS.     SURVEYORS. 

STATE  DEPARTMENT. 


53 
RELIEF  AND  CHARITIES. 

ANNUITY  GRANTS.        DISPENSARIES. 
CHARITY  COMMISSIONERS. 
HOMES  FOR 


Aged. 

Orphans. 

Idiots. 

Sailors. 

Soldiers. 

HOSPITALS: 

General. 

Epidemic. 

Infant. 

Insane. 

Lying  in. 

Marine. 

Eye,  Ear  and  Throat. 

Orthopedic. 

LIVE  SAVING. 

LIGHT  HOUSES 

LODGING  HOUSES  in  G.'asgow,  London,  &c. 

PENSION  DEPARTMENT.  Cost  for  1894  was  £1,- 
385,400  (included  under  Army). 

POOR  HOUSES,  in  1893  total  paupers,  indoor  and  out- 
door, 966,685.     In  1892  total  cost,  ^^11,172,113. 

POOR,  HOUSING  OF  in  Glasgow,  Birmingham,  Lon- 
don (Bethnal  Green),  Dublin,  and  elsewhere.  Arti- 
sans' dwellings  have  been  built  by  cities  and  rented 
at  low  rates.  E.  g.,  in  Dublin,  the  Town  Council 
built  a  comfortable  block  for  1,200  persons.  Cost, 
£40,000.  Average  rent  4  s.  per  week.  Similar  under- 
taking in  London. 

SCHOOL  MEALS  in  London. 

UNEMPLOYED,  WORK  FOR. 

SANITATION  AND  SAFETY. 

The  enterprises  following  are  conducted  by  most  cities 
in  the  United  Kingdom  : 

BATHS.  CEMETERIES. 

DRINKING  FOUNTS  AND  TROUGHS. 
ELECTRIC  LIGHTING.       FOUNTAINS. 
FIRE  DEPARTMENT. 


5i 

GARBAGE  AND  REFUSE  GATHERING.  55  cities 
and  towns  in  England  destroy  their  garbage  and  solid 
refuse  by  burning,  and  570  furnaces  are  employed. 
The  heat  is  being  used  to  develop  electricity  for  street 
lighting  in  many  cases.  There  is  no  smell  nor  smoke 
visible. 

GAS  LIGHTING.  PARKS. 

HEALTH  DEPARTMENT. 

PHYSICIANS  FOR  THE  CITY. 

PLAY  GROUNDS.  QUARANTINE. 

SANITARIES.  SEATS  IN  PARKS. 

SEWERAGE  AND  DRAINAGE.  In  1876,  65  towns 
in  England  owned  sewage  farms.  So  also  did  lulin- 
burgh  in  Scotland. 

STREET  CLEANING.      STREET  SPRINKLING. 

WASH  HOUSES,  in  Glasgow. 

WATER  W^ORKS.  The  following  large  cities  have 
their  own  municipal  water-works  :  Birmingham  (4°°,- 
000  population),  Bolton  (106,000),  Glasgow  (800,000), 
Hull  (165,000),  Leeds  (300,000),  Liverpool  (600,000), 
Manchester  (1,000,000),  Preston  (100,000).  (London 
is  supplied  by  8  companies,  closely  supervised.)  (Hull 
has  owned  its  water-works  for  over  400  years.) 

STATE  INTERFERENCE. 

Alkali  Work.  Amusements. 

Anchors.  Auctioneers. 

Baby  Farms.  Bakeries. 

Bills  of  Sale,  Lading,  Exchange,  Stocks,  Notes,  Bonds, 

Mortoaofes,  Leases. 
Births.  Boarding  Houses. 

Boiler  Inspection.  Breweries. 

Bridges,  Highway  and  Railway. 
Brokers.  Buildings. 

Burials 
Cabmen  and  Hack  Carriages. 


55 


Canal  Boats. 
Chemical  Works. 
Coats  of  Arms. 
Copy-rights. 
Corporations. 
Dams. 
Deaths. 
Dentists. 
Divorces. 
Druggists. 
Elections, 
lilevators. 
Endowed  Schools. 
Explosive  Works. 
Fire  Arms. 
Fisheries.  27,157 
Foods. 

Game  Dealers. 
Gas  Meters. 
Gun-barrels. 
House  Agents. 
Insurance  (all  kinds). 
Lecturers. 
Letters  Patent. 
Marriages. 
Merchant  Vessels. 
Mines.      In  189 
Milk  Stores. 
Naturalization. 
Newspapers. 
Omnibuses. 
Patents. 
Pawn  Brokers, 
Periodicals. 
Pharmacists. 
Places  of  W^orship. 
there  were  28,164 
Plate  Dealers. 


Chains. 
Clergymen. 
Coffee  Houses. 
Common  Lodging  Houses. 
Dairies. 

Dancing  Rooms. 
Deeds, 
Distilleries. 
Dogs. 
Electors. 
Electric  Works. 
P^ndowed  Charities. 
P^ngineers. 
Factories. 
P^ish  Curing. 
Registered  boats  with  120,356  men. 
Friendly  Societies. 
Game  Keepers  and  Hunting. 
Gas  Works. 
Hotels. 

House  Incomes. 
Lawyers. 
Legacies. 

Limited  Companies. 
Merchant  Shipping. 
Midwifery. 
664,300  persons  employed  in  coal 
Music  Halls.  [mines. 

Newsboys. 
Notaries. 
Passports. 
Patent  Medicines. 
Peddlers. 
Physicians. 


In    1893  in  luigland  and  Wales 
Playing-card  Makers. 


66 

Plumbing.  Poor  Law  Schools. 

Print  Works. 

Railways  (a  special  Department). 

Restaurants.  Saloons. 

Schools  of  Anatomy.  Schools,  Public  and  Private. 

Ships.  Street  Railways. 

Slaughter  Houses.  Steamboats. 

Surgeons.  Theatres. 

Tobacconists.  Trade  Marks. 

Vaccination.  Vinegar  Making. 

Weights  and  Measures.  Wine  Dealers. 

Workshops.  &c.,  &c. 


FRANCE. 

AREA,  204,092  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  38,343,192  in  1892. 

DEFENSE  OF  NATION. 

ARMY,  REGULAR,  in  1893  total,  564,603. 

Officers,  28,555.  Men,  535,048. 

Forts,  numerous. 

Expense  in  1894  estimated  at  636,701,630  francs. 
MILITIA,  in  1893  total  1,785,000.     (ist  Reserve.) 

Armories,  many.  Armory  Boards. 

NAVY,  in  1893  total,  76,320. 

Ofificers  of  Ships  and  of  Marines,  5,594- 

Seamen  and  Marines,  70,726. 

Battle  Ships,  34.  Port  Defense  Ships,  19. 

Cruisers,  167.  Torpedo  Boats,  231. 

Total  War  Vessels,  451. 

Expense  in  1894,  267,571,528  fr. 

Total  expense  of  Army  and  Navy  for  1893,  904,273,  i5( 
fr.  (or  about  ;$i8o, 854,631). 


67 
FINANCE. 

BANK  OF  FRANCE.  This  is  a  more  than  half-social- 
ized institution.  Founded  in  1799.  Capital,  182, 500,- 
000  fr.  Managed  by  a  governor  and  two  deputy- 
governors  appointed  by  the  chief  of  State,  assisted  by 
fifteen  regents  and  three  ccnseurs  (elected  by  the  share- 
holders). It  has  sole  note  issue  power  ;  discounts  bills 
and  letters  of  exchange  at  three  months  when  endorsed 
by  three  signers  ;  collects  bills  payable  handed  in  ;  re- 
ceives deposits  and  opens  current  accounts  ;  keeps  in 
trust  coupons,  deeds,  silver  and  gold  bars,  bullion,  and 
jewels,  for  one  per  cent,  per  annum.  It  has  a  branch 
in  each  of  the  87  Departments  (Provinces).  The  State 
owns  a  great  number  of  its  shares,  and  by  the  decree 
of  cours  force  carries  it  safely  through  every  crisis.  It 
is  therefore  not  only  the  State  cashier,  but  the  safest 
institution  in  the  country. 

BANKS,  SAVINGS,  POSTAL.  Introduced  in  1881. 
In  1893  there  were  2,095,623  depositors,  with  607,871,- 
925  fr.  deposited  at  the  end  of  the  year.  From  1881 
to  1890  the  net  profit  to  the  Government  had  been 
$649,677.90. 

COINAGE.  From  1795  to  Dec.  31,  1892,  there  had 
been  coined  in  gold  8,831,462,370  fr.,  in  silver  5,534.- 
675.124  fr. 

CUSTOMS  DEPARTMENT  (Foreign  Revenue),  em- 
ploys over  15,000  officers. 

INTERNAL  REVENUE  DEPARTMENT,  employs 
over  20,000  officers. 

NOTE  ISSUE,  only  by  Bank  of  France. 

TAX  COLLECTING  DEPARTMENT. 

TREASURY,  in  1S94  total  Government  receipts  esti- 
mated at  3.437,463,955  fr- 

LANDS.  State  Forests  in  1S89  covered  1,070,477  hec- 
tares. 1,915.370  h.  belonged  to  Comm-mes  and  public 
institutions,  and  are  managed  by  the  State.      (About 


58 

6,500,000  h.  of  forests  belong  to  private  individuals.) 
The  annual  revenue  to  the  State  from  its  Forests  ex- 
ceeds 40,000,000  fr. 

DISTRIBUTION. 

ROADS,  in  1892  there  were  23,642  mi.  of  State  roads 
having  an  average  of  12  meters  width.  There  were 
also  30,312  mi.  of  Provincial  roads,  and  1,000  mi.  of 
Military  roads. 

STREETS,  in  1889  were  estimated  at  374,382  mi. 

(Street  Railways,  mostly  private.  In  1892  there  were  in 
France  altogether  1,564  km.  The  Company  lines  in 
Paris  reverted  to  the  General  Government  of  France 
on  the  expiration  of  their  franchises.  Underground 
rapid  transit  by  electric  power  has  reached  in  Paris 
the  most  advanced  state  in  the  world.) 

(Street  Lighting.  The  Paris  municipality  shares  in  the 
profits  of  the  gas  companies  to  the  extent  of  over 
20,000,000  fr.  yearly.) 

EXPRESS  SERVICE. 

RAILWAYS,  under  State  ownership  in  1892,  5,878  km. 
(3,643  mi.)  (Under  Company  ownership,  28,913  km.) 
The  charters  of  Company  railways  stipulate  that  they 
shall  revert  to  the  State  at  the  end  of  99  years,  with 
the  right  to  purchase  at  any  time  before.  The  charters 
require  the  railways  to  carry  the  mail  free,  so  too  the 
officers  and  employees  of  the  Government,  and  the 
soldiers  at  very  lowest  rates.  The  companies  pay  the 
State  10  %  of  the  gross  receipts  on  passenger  traffic, 
also  on  freights  carried  on  passenger  trains.  The  total 
receipts.  State  and  private,  in  1893  were  1,1 59,500, ooofr. 

RIVERS,  NAVIGABLE,  11,855  km. 

CANALS.  State.  4,865  km.  Profits  for  1887,  2,433,05  ifr. 
186  mi.  of  rivers  have  been  converted  into  canals. 

harbors.  viaducts. 

\vharvp:s  and  piers. 


59 

BRIDGES,  over  2,000  expensive  ones. 

BRIDGE  ENGINEERS.     SURVEYORS. 

POSTAL  SERVICE.  Number  of  offices  in  1890,  7,537. 
Employees,  about  35,060. (?)  Money  orders  issued  in 
1890,  3,083,770,000  fr. 

TELEGRAPH.  State  lines  in  1892,  59,693  mi.;  wire, 
197,622  mi.;  offices,  10,589.  Telegraph  and  Post  re- 
ceipts, 197,837,606  fr.;  expenses,  143,045,846  fr.;  profits, 
54,791,760  fr. 

CABLES,  3,116.74  mi.  (included  above). 

TELEPHONES,  in  1890,  11,439  subscribers. 

PNEUMATIC  TUBES,  237  mi.  in  Paris. 

SUBWAYS.  MARKETS. 

EDUCATION. 

AGRICULTURAL  BUREAUS. 

ARCHAEOLOGICAL  RESEARCH.  Continual  pro- 
vision therefor  by  experts  educated  at  the  State  ex- 
pense. 

ART  GALLERIES.  BAND  CONCERTS. 

BIOLOGICAL  RESEARCH. 

BOTANIC  GARDENS.      CENSUS  BUREAU. 

CHURCHES,  STATE.  Roman  Catholics,  Protestants 
and  Jews  have  State  allowances.  The  Budget  for  1894 
grants  44,229,040  fr.,  (to  Roman  Catholics,  42,261,523 
fr.)  The  Roman  Catholics  constitutes  78.5  %  of  the 
population.  Any  sect  numbering  100,000  adherents 
is  entitled  to  a  grant  from  the  State.  There  were 
7,684,906  persons  who  "declined  to  make  any  declar- 
ation of  religious  belief." 

CLOCKS,  TOWN.  COAST  SURVEYS. 

CONCERT  HALLS  AND  CASINOS. 

EDUCATIONxA^L  BUREAUS. 

ENGRAVING  BUREAUS. 


eo 

ETHNOLOGICAL  BUREAUS. 
EXPLORING  EXPEDITIONS. 
EXPOSITIONS.  FAIRS. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  and  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEYS. 
LIBRARIES,  Public  in  the  chief  towns. 
METEOROLOGICAL  BUREAUS. 
MONUMENTS  AND  STATUES. 
MUSEUMS,  some  of  the  best  in  the  world. 
OBSERVATORIES,    three:    Bureau    des    Longitudes, 

and  at  Paris  and  Marseilles  also. 
PRINTING.  READING  ROOMS. 

SCHOOLS,  PUBLIC  -. 

Kindergartens  in  1S91,   5,340,  with  8,572  teachers, 

and  709,579  pupils. 

Primary  in   18S9,   81,990,  with  81,857  teachers,   and 

5,593,883  pupils,  including  private  schols. 

Secondary  in  1890,  393,  with  90,908  pupils. 

Colleges,  44,  with  over  3,000  students. 

Normal  in  1891,  174,  with  9,009  students. 

Law  in  1891,  15,  with  4,750  students. 

Medical  in  1891,  6,  with  6,590  students. 

Theological  in  1891,  2. 

Art  in  1891,  4.  Music,  i. 

Domestic  Economy.  Forestry  in  1S91,  i. 

Technological,  10.  Mines,  i. 

Industrial,  4.  Agricultural,  4. 

Military,  9.  Nautical,  27. 

Blind.  Deaf  and  Dumb. 

"Free  Establishments,"  650,  with  68,000  pupils. 

State  Expense  for  Education  in  1893,  183,859,965  fr. 

Teaching  is  a  State  service  regulated  by  law  or  de- 
cree. 
THEOLOGICAL  RESEARCH.     The  Musee  Guimet 

at  Paris  is  an  institution  for  the  comparative  and  sci- 
entific study  of  religion.     It  is  munificently  equipped 

with  library,  apparatus,  and  professors.     The  inception 


61 

and  founding  belong  to  the  credit  and  generosity  of 

M.  Emile  Guimet,  of  Lyons.     Tliere  is  no  other  of  the 

kind  in  the  world. 
ZOOLOGICAL  GARDENS. 
ZOOLOGICAL  RESEARCH. 

In  recent  years  France  has  been  making  greater  strides 
of  advancement  in  education  than  any  country  in  the 
world.  The  Franco-Prussian  war  taught  her  statesmen 
a  lesson  not  soon  to  be  forgotten.  As  the  result  of  a 
recent  examination  of  the  public  schools  in  Paris,  the 
New  York  School  jfournal  says  : 

"  The  primary  public  schools  take  the  children  from  the  age  of 
six  to  twelve.  The  education  is  given  free ;  in  the  primary  schools 
the  girls  learn  housekeeping,  from  kitchen  work  and  buying  in 
the  market  to  mending  and  making  their  dresses  ;  and  boys  prac- 
tice joinery  and  blacksmithing.  They  are  in  separate  schools. 
The  girls  only  have  women  teachers.  The  course  of  studies  and 
the  general  discipline  are  the  same  for  both  sexes.  Not  more 
than  fifty  scholars  in  the  lower  class  or  forty  in  the  higher  are 
allowed. 

The  nezver  school  buildings  are  large,  light  and  airy.  Only 
two  children  sit  at  a  bench  or  desk.  # 

Books,  paper,  and  all  needed  stationery  are  furnished  to  all  the 
scholars,  rich  or  poor,  free  of  charge.  This  averages  about  one 
dollar  per  year  for  each.  The  children  evidently  do  not  know 
the  general  geography  so  well  as  American  pupils,  but  they  seem 
to  be  better  up  in  all  that  concerns  their  own  country.  They  know 
how  to  count  and  reckon  money,  especially  the  girls;  for  women 
are  the  cashiers  and  bookkeepers  for  their  husbands. 

The  city  furnishes  a  solid  meal  At  the  hour  of  noon.  The  meal 
is  usually  served  up  in  the  covered  play-room.  Each  has  a  bowl 
of  soup  and  a  plate  of  steaming  meat  and  vegetables.  All  bring 
bread  from  home  unless  too  poor,  then  the  child  receives  a  piece 
of  bread  from  the  school.  To  get  their  portions,  each  child  pre- 
sents a  copper  check,  costing  from  3  to  4  cents  ;  the  poor  have 
one  given  them. 

Clothing  and  shoes  are  also  furnished  to  the  children  whose  pa- 
rents cannot  furnish  what  is  necessary  to  put  them  on  a  footing 
of  decent  equality  with  all  the  rest,  as  French  school  children 
wear  uniforms.  The  money  for  this  is  got  mainly  by  subscription 
by  the  school  directors. 

As  vacations  can  be  made  to  serve  to  education  as  well  as  to 
health,  vacation  journeys  and  school   colonies  are  planned  for. 


62 

These  journeys  usually  occupy  a  day,  but  they  are  frequently  for 
a  week  ;  while  one  ward  has  begun  school  colonies  that  take  the 
children  away  from  their  families  and  the  city  for  an  entire  month. 
The  children  who  are  to  enjoy  free  trips  to  the  country  for  a  day 
are  chosen  among  all  who  have  behaved  themselves;  the  children 
of  well-to-do  parents  are  not  supposed  to  compete  ;  usually  they 
are  off  for  the  vacation  with  their  own  families,  so  that  children 
of  the  poorest  families  who  are  the  best  behaved  are  selected. 

Cymnastics  is  o.bligatory  both  for  the  girls  and  the  boys.  Du- 
ring the  class  recess  of  one  half  hour,  morning  and  evening, 
specially  appointed  teachers  supervise  exercises  on  parallel  bars, 
swinging  ropes  and  rings,  ladders,  dumb-bells,  and  all  the  rest. 
These  teachers  have  to  have  a  special  certificate  of  proficiency  in 
gymnastic  teaching.  In  the  girls'  school  special  favor  is  shown  to 
a  Swedish  arrangement  of  cords  and  rope  ladders  pulling  against 
a  stout  spiral  spring  (it  is  known  as  the  Pichery  apparatus).  Besides 
there  is  a  great  amount  of  military  drill ;  each  boys'  school  has  its 
own  battalion. 

Ma  filial  trainifig  h?i^he^n  introduced  into  the  public  schools; 
one-half  of  the  two  hundred  schools  for  boys  are  fitted  up  with 
shops  for  working  in  wockI,  and  fifteen  have  provision  for  iron 
work.  Much  attention  is  now  given  to  joiners'  work.  The  girls 
learn  sewing,  mending,  darning  stockings  and  the  making  of  baby 
linen.     Drawing  and  singing  are  taught  to  all. 

The  next  teaching  above  that  in  the  primary  schools  just  des- 
scribed  are  complementary  classes,  from  12  to  15.  These  are  for 
the  advanced  mathematics  and  natural  sciences,  especially  in 
their  practical  every-day  applications,  for  bookkeeping  and  the 
modern  languages,  for  drawing,  and  a  little  more  music ;  atten- 
tion is  now  more  than  ever  given  to  practical  working  with  the 
hands.  The  girls  are  taught  all  kinds  of  sewing,  receive  special 
lessons  in  the  cutting  out  and  making  up  of  clothes.  They  study 
the  qualities  of  foods  and  drinks,  the  elementary  principles  of 
cooking  and  providing  for  household  necessities,  the  concocting 
of  simple  remedies  for  sickness,  washing  and  ironing,  heating  and 
lighting,  and  all  that  concerns  the  management  of  the  home. 
They  go  by  turns  through  real  kitchen  and  laundry  work.  In  the 
former  they  are  called  on  to  do  the  marketing  of  the  day's  meal 
for  their  set,  under  the  eyes  of  the  teacher  and  the  cooking  mis- 
tress. They  are  allowed  to  dispose  of  ten  francs  for  the  meal  of 
ten  persons.  They  have  eight  bills  of  fare  to  make  up  in  winter 
and  as  many  more  in  summer." 

FOOD  PRODUCTION. 

Through  the   National  Agricultural   Department  the 
Government  carries  on  a  careful  inspection  and  system 


63 

of  encouragement  to  food  producers  and  horse  breeders. 

It  organizes  provincial  shows  of  cattle,  implements  and 

agricultural  products.     It  spends  millions  of  francs  yearly 

as  premiums  to  the  owners  of  the  best  stock  in  horses, 

cattle,  sheep,  &c. 

Besides  these  the  State  owns  and  manages  the 

SHEEP-FOLDS  of  Haut-Tingry  and  Rambouillet. 

COW-HOUSE  of  Carbon,  for  Durhams  only. 

STALLION-STABLES  in  22  central  towns,  contain- 
ing some  1,200  horses,  and  costing  annually  about 
2,000,000  fr. 

MEANS  PRODUCTION. 

CAR  BUILDING.  DRY  DOCKS.  , 

ENGINEERING  DEPARTMENT. 
FOUNDRIES. 

GUNPOWDER,  State  monopoly.  The  Government 
monopolies  of  Tobacco,  Gunpowder,  Post  and  Tele- 
graph yield  20  %  of  the  State  Revenue.  The  Budget 
for  1894  makes  total  revenue,  3,437,463,935  fr.,  of  this 
628,901,980  fr.  are  from  Government  monopolies. 

LOCOMOTIVE  WORKS. 

MATCHES.  Government  owns  and  operates  a  match 
factory  at  Sainteneo. 

PORCELAIN  FACTORIES.  The  famous  "Sevres 
China"  factory  has  been  French  Government  property 
for  nearly  200  years.  There  are  18  private  establish- 
ments of  this  kind  in  France,  but  the  one  at  Sevres  is 
first  in  importance.  The  State  also  maintains  a  school 
in  connection  with  it  for  the  training  of  artistic  work- 
men, and  thus  the  art  is  maintained  in  a  high  degree 
of  perfection. 

SHIP  BUILDING. 

TAPESTRY  FACTORIES.  The  celebrated  "  Gobe- 
lin Tapestries"  are  made  in  factories  owned  by  the 
State  for  200  years. 


64 

TOBACCO.  State  monopoly.  In  1892,  15,467  hectares 
produced.  229,974  quintals  in  21  great  establishments. 
(i  hectare,  2.47  acres.) 

LAW  AND  ORDER. 

Republic.     Constitution  adopted  Feb.  25,  1875. 

ALLOTMENTS.  AMBASSADORS. 

APPORTIOXIXG  BOARDS. 

APPRAISING  COMMISSIONERS. 

ARBITRATION  COMMISSIONERS  and  Bureaus  in 
1887  decided  47,917  cases.  29,269  over  wages.  These 
commissions  have  26  members,  13  each  of  employees 
and  employers. 

ASSAYING  COMMISSIONERS. 

ASSESSING  BOARD.        AUDITING  BOARDS. 

BANKRUPT  REGISTRY. 

CIVIL  SERVICE  BOARDS. 

COMPTROLLERS.  CONSULS. 

CORONERS.  COPYRIGHT  BUREAUS. 

CORPORATION  COUNSELS. 

COURTS  OF  JUSTICE.  All  Judges  are  nominated 
by  the  President  of  the  Republic.  Budget  of  Minister 
of  Justice  in  1893,  34,819,500  fr. 

Cassation,  i  at  Paris,     i  first  President,  3  Presidents 
of  Sections,  and  45  Councilors. 

Supreme  or  Appeal,     i  President  and  4  Councilors. 
Assize.     12  jurors  ;  decision  by  majority. 
Police.     No  jury.     3  judges  in  each. 
Justices  of  the  Peace. 

ENCUMBRANCE  BUREAUS. 

EXECUTIVE  DEPARTMENT.  President  and  Cabi- 
net of  10  Ministers.  President's  salary,  600,000  fr.  and 
600,000  fr.  for  expenses.  The  gain  to  France  from  the 
socialization  of  the  head  of  the  executive  department 
alone  is  shown  by  these  facts;  Louis  XVIII  had  15,- 


65 

5co,ooo  fr.  per  annum  and  4,000,000  fr.  for  the  royal 
family  ;  Charles  X  got  25,000,000 fr.  and  7,000,000 fr.  for 
the  princes  ;  Louis  Philippe,  1 2,000,000  fr.  and  a  round 
sum  for  his  children  ,  and  the  Second  Empire  cost 
25,000,000  fr.,  besides  pensions  to  imperial  family, 
palaces,  castles,  forests,  and  mysterious  resources 
called  z'ivcments. 

JURY,  PETIT. 

LEGISLATIVE  ASSEMBLIES. 

National.  Senate  has  300  members,  elected  for  9 
years.  Deputies,  584  members  elected  for  4  years. 
Members  of  each  House  are  paid  9,000  fr.  (about 
^i,Soo)  yearly,  besides  travelling  free  on  all  railways. 
The  session  begins  in  January,  and  lasts  five  months. 
The  appropriation  for  President,  Chamber,  and  Senate 
in  1894  was  13,171,720  fr. 

Provincial.    87  Departments.    Each  has  a  Prefect  and 
representatives  of  all  the  Ministries. 
Municipal.    36,140  Communes,  with  Municipal  Coun- 
cils of  10  to  36  members  (in  Paris,  80). 
Cantonal,  2,871,  including  about  12  Communes  each. 
Their  chief  officer  is  a  Justice  of  the  Peace. 
Arrondissements,   362.     These   have  elected   conscil 
for  allotting  taxes,  &c. 

MARRIAGES.  MINISTERS,  FOREIGN. 

PARK  COMMISSIONERS. 

PATENT  OFFICES.  PILOT  BOARDS. 

POLICE,  or  Gendarmes,  20,919  in  1888;  "  Commissaires 
de  Police,"  1,087  »  Agents  of  Police,  14, 1 1 1  ;  "  Gardes 
des  Champetres,"  31,522;  private  sworn  "gardes," 
38,751  ;  forest  "gardes,"  7,649  ;  fishing  police,  5,085  ; 
customs  officials,  21,648.     Total,  140,772. 

PORT  WARDENS-  POUNDS. 

PRISONS.     In  1888  the  total  inmates  were  44,248. 
Police  Stations,  or  "  Houses  of  arrest."     Of  these 
there  were  3,134  in  1S88. 


66 

Jails,  or  "Departmental  prisons,"  3S0  in   iSSS,  with 

24,967  inmates. 

Reformatories,  44  in  iSSS,  with  6,099  inmates  in  1887, 

Penitentiaries,  21   (16  for  men  and  5  for  women), 

with  13,182  inmates  in  1888, 

Transportation   Colonies    in   New   Caledonia   and 

Guiana,  with  13,000  in  1888. 
RAILWAY  COMMISSIONS. 
REGISTRARS  OF  DEEDS. 
RIVER  COMMISSIONS.     SECRET  SERVICE. 

RELIEF  AND  CHARITIES. 

There  is  no  general  State  system  for  poor  relief     The 

care  is  by  Communes,  Departments,  and  Church  ;  and, 

though  considerable,  is  very  inadequate. 

ANNUITY  GRANTS. 

CHARITY  BUREAUS,  or  "  Bureaux  de  Bienfaisance," 
15,138  in  188S,  with  a  total  revenue  of  38,359,101  fr. 
The  expense  was  35,893,331  fr.  There  were  1,647,720 
persons  relieved. 

DISPENSARIES. 

HOMES  FOR  AGED,  ORPHANS,  AND  IDIOTS. 

HOSPITALS;  GENERAL,  also  EPIDEMIC. 

HOSPITALS,  INFANT.  At  the  end  of  18S8  there  were 
2,068  sick  inmates,  59,535  domiciled  in  the  country, 
and  44,598  who  were  being  assisted  in  their  homes. 
The  total  expense  was  17,159,681  fr. 

HOSPITALS,  INSANE.     In  the  same  year  there  were 
61  public  and  41  private  (of  which  17  received  the  poor 
gratuitously). 
LIFE  SAVING.  LIGHT  HOUSES. 

NURSERIES. 

PAWN  SHOPS.  The  municipal  pawn  shop  is  an  insti- 
tution closely  associated  with  the  Charity  Bureaus 
and  Town  Councils  of  44  towns  and  cities  in  France. 


67 

Some  of  them  have  been  endowned,  such  as  those  of 
Montpellier  and  Grenoble.  These  charge  no  interest 
at  all.  Of  the  others  the  highest  rate  is  12  %.  (In 
England  where  the  private  system  prevails,  the  lowest 
rate  is  25  %.)  Even  at  the  very  low  rate,  the  munici- 
pal pawn  shop  adds  something  of  an  income  toward 
assisting  the  indigent  sick.  Its  scope  is  wide  and  its 
usefulness  great.  It  has  all  the  dignity  and  respecta- 
bility of  other  municipal  institutions.  It  is  a  bank  for 
the  poor  man,  and  a  safe  deposit  vault  for  the  rich. 
They  are  called  "  ^lonts  de  Piete."  They  were  first 
established  in  Paris  in  1777. 

PENSION  DEPARTMENT.     POOR  HOUSES. 

SCHOOL  MEALS,  for  Paris  children. 

WORK  FOR  UNEMPLOYED.     710  Bureaus  in  188S. 
They  have  proved  a  great  remedy  against  strikes. 

SAXITATIOX  AND  SAFETY. 

The  Government  provision  in  these  respects  are  num- 
erous and  extensive.  The  details  are  difficult  to  obtain. 
The  following  are  some  of  the  more  important  instances  : 
BATHS,  PUBLIC. 

DRINKING  FOUNTS  AND  TROUGHS. 
ELECTRIC  LIGHTING. 
FIRE  DEPARTMENT. 
FORESTRY.     Receipts  from  .State  Forests  in  1S93  were 

28,194,300  fr.     From  other  domains  and  State  manu- 
facturies  in  1S93,  17,689,000  fr. 
FOUNTAINS.  GAS   LIGHTING. 

GARBAGE  AND   REFUSE  GATHERING. 
HEALTH  DEPARTMENT. 
PARKS.  PLAYGROUNDS. 

QUARANTINE.  SANITARIES. 

SEATS  IN  PARKS. 


68 

SEWERAGE  AND  DRAINAGE. 
STREET  CLEANING.       SLAUGHTER  HOUSES. 
STREET  SPRINKLING. 

WATER  WORKS.     All  the  larger  towns  enjoy  munici- 
pal ownership. 

STATE  INTERFERENCE. 

In  France  every  business  is  licensed  and  taxed  a  low 
rate  toward  the  support  of  the  Government.  In  a  nation 
so  highly  socialized,  the  division  of  labors  is  very  great, 
and  the  number  of  businesses  over  which  the  State  ex- 
ercises some  sort  of  regulation  by  requiring  license, 
registration  or  inspection,  reaches  many  thousands. 


GERMANY. 


AREA,  208,738  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  49,428,470  in  1893. 

A  nation  is  a  social  organism  going  through  processes  of  evo- 
lution. This  evolution  is  progressive  when  the  nation  is  active 
and  the  people  are  individually  interested  and  inspired  by  hope- 
ful motives.  Under  such  conditions,  the  sympathies  of  the  people 
are  further  and  further  expanded,  and  in  their  acts  they  cooperate 
more  and  more.  This  means  the  socialization  of  enterprises. 
Ultimately,  great  parties  arise  whose  function  it  is  to  urge  this 
point  of  view  upon  the  nation  as  a  whole.  Such  is  the  case  in 
Germany. 

The  growth  of  the  Social  Democratic  Party,  since  the  found- 
ing of  the  German  Empire,  has  been  most  remarkable.  In  1864, 
at  Lasalle's  death,  the  Universal  Workingmen's  Association 
(which  he  organized)  had  only  4,610  members.  After  the  Franco- 
Prussian  War  it  became  a  party  of  some  importance,  and  in  1874 
it  elected  9  members  to  the  Reichstag. 

The  number  of  votes  polled  by  this  party  at  various  elections 
has  been  as  follows  : 


69 

In  1871, 124,655  votes. 

In  1874, 351.952  votes. 

In  1877, 493,288  votes. 

In  1878, 437,158  votes. 

In  iS8r 311,961  votes. 

In  1884 549.990  votes. 

In  1888, 763,128  votes. 

In  1890, 1,427,298  votes. 

In  1983 1,876,738  votes. 

It  is  now  the  largest  of  the  four  great  political  parties  in  Ger- 
many. Although  as  a  party,  it  has  not  gotten  the  credit  of  the 
great  social  advances  which  have  been  made  in  Germany,  yet  it  is 
an  incontrovertible  fact  that  the  General  Government  is  continu- 
ally accepting  the  positions  and  legalizing  the  claims  made  by  this 
fast  growing  body.  This  feature  gives  a  pateryialistic  character 
to  all  phases  of  socialism  in  Germany,  i.  e.,  the  leaders  in  the 
Government  are  continually  forced  by  the  social-democrats  to  give 
attention  to  problems  in  which  they  would  otherwise  have  no  inter- 
est. The  growing  sympathy  with  the  principles  of  social  democ- 
racy compels  the  Imperial  and  subordinate  powers  to  put  into  law 
and  practice  these  advanced  principles.  Having  done  so,  they 
claim  the  credit  of  being  leaders  in  progress.  This  situation  keeps 
the  new  party  before  the  world  in  the  light  of  a  set  of  theorizers, 
and  all  the  undiscriminating  world  looks  on  and  says:  "  What  a 
progressive  and  liberal  government  Germany  has,  and  what  a  set 
of  unreasonable  cranks  the  German  socialists  are  !" 

Hence,  although  Germany  is  among  the  most  socialistic  of 
countries,  yet  Democratic  Socialism  is  vigorously  opposed  by 
the  Government.  Assemblies  of  socialists  are  forbidden.  Karl 
Marx,  the  greatest  of  social  teachers,  was  driven  from  home  and 
died  an  exile  in  England.  He  has  influenced  the  trend  of  Ger- 
man Social  Policy  more  than  any  other  man,  not  excepting  Bis- 
marck. Yet  his  disciples  are  hunted  out  of  the  country.  The 
saying,  "to  accept  a  principle  and  to  damn  the  advocate,"  is 
curiously  illustrated  in  Germany.  (See  further  Bronson  C.  Keel- 
er's  Lecture  before  Sunset  Club,  Chicago,  1S91.) 

DEFENSE  OF  NATION. 

ARMY,  Regular,  in  1893,  total  511,885. 
Officers.  20,662.  Men,  491,223. 

Forts,  17  fortified  places  of  the  first-class,  and  19  other 
fortresses.  Forts  are  all  connected  with  each  other  by 
underground  telegraphs.  Strategical  railway  lines 
lead  from  chief  military  centers  to  frontiers. 


70 

Expense  of  Army  in  1893,  568,908,314  marks. 
MILITIA  in  1892,  total  1,904,415. 

Armories,  numerous.  Armory  Boards. 

NAVY  in  1893,  total  18,469. 

Ofificers  of  Ships  and  Marines,  1,023. 

Seamen  and  Marines,  17,446. 

Battle  Ships,  14.  Port  Defense  Ships,  14. 

Cruisers,  43.  Torpedo  Boats,  141. 

Total  War  Vessels,  212. 

Expense  of  Navy  in  1893,  95,911,402  marks. 

Total  expense  of  Army  and  Navy  in  1893,  664,819,716 

marks,  (or  abont  $166,000,000). 

FINANCE. 

BANK,  Imperial.  99,708,891,000  marks  exchanged  in 
1889.  With  branches  in  chief  towns.  Partly  socialized, 
but  not  so  much  so  as  thfe  Bank  of  P'rance. 

POSTAL  SAVINGS  BANKS. 

COINAGE.  Total  coined  since  1872,  3,164,158,200 
marks  (gold,  silver,  nickel  and  copper). 

CUSTOMS  DEPARTMENT  (Foreign  Revenue). 

INTERNAL  REVENUE  DEPARTMENT. 

LOTTERIES.  In  Prussia,  in  the  Budget  for  1894,  the 
lottery  revenue  is  put  at  73,013,700  marks. 

NOTE  ISSUE.  Notenbanken  (only  9  in  1892).  In 
1889  the  notes  then  issued  amounted  to  1,312,203,400 
marks. 

TAX  COLLECTING  DEPARTMENT. 

TREASURY  DEPARTMENT. 

DISTRIBUTION. 

PATPIS.  STREETS. 

ROADS,  265,000  mi.  in  1S90. 

STRPLP^T  RAILWAYS,  under  municipal  ownership,  in 
1S90  Kopernick,  Weislock,  and  several  other  cities. 


71 

In  Berlin  the  company  franchise  expires  in  191 1,  and 
the  plant  then  reverts  to  the  city,  (87  cities,  in  all, 
had  street  railways  in  1892.) 
STREET  LIGHTING.  In  1892  there  were  1,500  Gas 
plants  in  the  various  German  cities.  A  very  large 
number  of  them  are  owned  by  the  municipalities.  30 
of  the  largest  cities  own  and  operate  their  gas  works. 
Among  these  are  Berlin,  Hamburg,  Breslau,  Leipsic, 
Dresden,  Cologne,  Konigsberg,  Bremen,  Dusseldorf, 
Nuremberg,  Dantzig,  Magdeburg,  Chemnitz,  Barmen, 
Stettin,  and  Brunswick.  Those  cities  who  do  not  own 
the  plants  test  the  illuminating  power  of  the  gas  daily. 
About  one-fourth  of  all  the  artificial  light  used  in  the 
great  European  cities  is  for  streets  and  public  places. 
The  public  at  home  and  on  the  street,  thus  get  the 
best  quality  at  the  lowest  rates.  (Gas  is  also  largely 
used  for  power,  there  being  in  1892  no  less  than  170,- 
000  engines,) 

Electricity.  Among  the  German  cities  which  own  elec- 
tric plants  are :  Hamburg,  Lubeck,  Barmen,  Konigs- 
berg, Metz,  Darmstadt,  Duisburg,  (before  1890),  tlien 
Breslau,  Cologne,  Dusseldorf,  Altona,  and  Cassel. 
Dresden  and  Stuttgart  have  decided  to  enter  on  this 
at  once.  Leipsic  has  given  a  franchise  to  a  private 
company  on  good  terms  to  the  city,  with  the  provi.sion 
that  the  plant  shall  become  the  property  of  the  city  at 
end  of  the  term. 

How  the  public  interest  is  looked  after  when  franchises 
are  granted,  may  be  seen  in  the  case  of  the  relations 
the  Berlin  Electric  LigJit  Co.,  whose  contract  was  made 
in  1888.  Dr.  Albert  Shaw  says  :  "  It  defines  the  area 
within  which  the  company  may  operate.  It  requires 
under  heavy  penalties  that  the  area  be  fully  provided 
with  main  wires  within  a  brief  period  specified  in  the 
contract.  As  compensation  for  permission  (now  ex- 
clusive) to  use  the  streets,  it  is  agreed  that  the  Munic- 
ipal treasury  shall  receive  10%  of  the  company's  gross 
receipts,  and,  further,  that  whenever  the  company  earns 


72 

a  net  profit  of  more  than  6  %  on  its  actual  investment 
of  capital,  the  city  treasury  shall  receive  25  %  of  such 
excess  profits,  in  addition  to  its  10  %  of  the  gross  in- 
come. Still  further,  it  is  agreed  that  the  company 
shall  provide  the  magnificent  electric  illumination  of 
Unter-den-Linden,  together  with  that  of  the  ^otsdamer 
Platz  and  the  Leipsiger  Strasse,  with  all  expense  of 
maintainace  and  attendance^  at  a  price  so  low  as  to  be 
nominal.  Besides  this,  a  special  and  favorable  rate  is 
provided  for  such  further  electric  street  lighting  as  the 
municipality  may  desire.  The  city  authorities  retain 
the  fullest  rights  of  inspection,  both  technical  and  fi- 
nancial, and  all  the  compan)''s  affairs  are  open  to  the 
knowledge  of  responsible  public  officials.  The  city 
requires  the  deposit  of  250,000  marks  as  caution 
money,  and  holds  the  company  down  to  the  strictest 
rules  in  regard  to  the  laying  of  wires  and  the  breaking 
up  of  street  or  sidewalk  surfaces.  The  company  is 
required,  moreover,  to  maintain  a  renewal  fund  equal 
to  20  %  of  its  invested  capital,  and  this  fund,  in  the 
form  of  Berlin  municipal  bonds,  must  be  kept  on  de- 
posit with  the  city  magistrates.  Accompanying  the 
agreement  was  an  official  schedule  of  rates  that  the 
company  was  authorized  to  charge  its  private  patrons. 
No  departures  from  established  rates  can  be  made 
without  consent  of  the  city  authorities.  Finally,  the 
municipality  reserves  the  right  to  buy  the  entire  plant 
and  all  its  appurtenances  at  any  time  after  Oct.  ist, 
1895,  upon  a  fair  basis  of  valuation  carefully  provided 
for  in  the  contract." 

Here  is  a  moral  lesson  for  American  towns  and  cities, 
and  it  would  certainly  be  interesting  reading  for  many 
of  our  corporations. 

EXPRESS  SERVICE,  chiefly  by  Government  agency 
though  not  entirely  monopolized. 

RAILWAYS.     Under  State  ownership,    23,843  mi.   in 
1892. 


(Under  private  ownership,  3,123  mi.  296  of  which  are 
worked  by  Government.) 

The  Government  first  assumed  ownership  of  railroad 
in  1843. 

The  cost  to  end  of  1892  has  been  10,726,246,000  marks. 
Receipts  for  1892  on  Government  roads  were  1,348,- 
864,000  mks.  Expenses,  876,054,000  mks.  Profits, 
472,810,000  mks.  (In  1890  the  net  profit  was  500,- 
668,687  mks.) 

The  average  passenger  fare  is  .0117  cts.  per  mile,  and 
the  average  freight  rate  is  .0147  cts.  per  ton  per  mile. 
During  the  last  ten  years  the  net  profit  has  increased 
41  %,  and  wages  are  121  %  higher  than  under  private 
ownership.  The  fare  for  3d  class  travel  (which  is  a 
large  per  cent,  of  all)  is  only  i  cent  for  4  miles. 
The  State  employed  340,553  persons  on  railways  in 
1890,  and  paid  them  404,286,555  marks  (about  $90,- 
220,000). 

There  were  59,130  other  persons  employed  in  shops, 
on  repairing,  gas  making,  &c.  There  were  1,316  em- 
ployees for  every  100  miles  of  road  in  1S90. 
There  were  7,371  stations,  and  1,305  signal  stations. 
In  speed,  the  law  prescribes  a  limit  of  50  to  55  mi.  an 
hour  for  main  line  passenger  trains  with  air-brakes. 
The  fastest  trains  in  the  world,  taking  the  average 
speed,  are  on  the  Berlin  and  Hamburg  line  of  178 
miles,  where  the  rate  for  through  passenger  trains 
averages  48.9  miles  an  hour. 

In  1893,  46  passengers  were  killed  and  236  were  in- 
jured ;  i.  e.,  .03  cases  of  death  or  injury  for  every 
1,000,000  passenger  kilometers.  Travelling  by  rail 
in  Germany  is  computed  to  be  20  times  safer  and  8 
times  faster  than  on  common  highways. 

RIVERS,  Navigable,  10,000  km.  Since  1S20  great 
changes  have  been  made  in  rivers.  Mouths  altered, 
bottoms  dredged,  and  wider  dams  built. 

CANALS,  State,  70,  reaching  3,000  km.  Nortlj  Sea 
and  Baltic  Canal  is  being  built.     To  be  completed  in 


1894.  Cost,  ^37,500,000.  62  mi.  long,  28  ft.  deep  at 
low  water. 

HARBORS. 

WHARVES  AND  PIERS.  In  Hamburg  a  source  of 
great  revenue. 

VIADUCTS.  BRIDGES. 

BRIDGE  ENGINEERS.     SURVEYORS. 

POSTAL  SERVICE,  Offices,  27.644  in  1892.  (2  mails 
a  day  in  the  smallest  communities.)  Postal  and  Tele- 
graphic systems  were  combined  in  1874,  and  money 
orders  issued,  21,444,464,679  marks. 
Value  of  all  sendings,  28,000,000,000  marks. 
The  Post  traverses  annually  45,260,000  mi.  of  country 
roads. 

TELEGRAPH,  State  Lines,  73.198  mi.  in  1892.  Wire, 
259,628  mi.,  (all  wires  are  underground,  even  in  the 
country.)     Offices,   18,739. 

Receipts,  including  Post,  for  1892,  279,295,305  marks. 
Expenses  of  both,  258,206,047  marks.  Profits,  21,089,- 
258  marks.  Rate  to  any  part  of  the  Empire  is  5  cts. 
for  10  words.  In  the  United  States  the  average  charge 
per  message  was  31.2  cts.  with  a  profit  of  1 1.3  cts.  on 
each. 

Employees,  including  Post,    154,117  persons. 
Firsi  State    TclegrapJi  was  in  1846  between  Jicrlin  and 
Potsdam. 

CABLES. 

TELEPHONES,  in  360  towns  and  cities,  with  10,000 
km.  of  line, 125, 000  km.  of  wire,  and  72  000  speaking- 
places.  The  charge  is  150  marks  (about  ^36)  a  )e!r 
for  telephone  and  no  charge  for  switches.  (In  New 
York  the  Bell  Telephone  monopoly  charge  $240  a 
year.) 

SUBWAYS.  CATTLE  YARDS. 

MARKETS.  RESTAURANTS. 

SALOONS.  DRUGSTORES. 


to 
EDUCATION, 

AGRICULTURAL  BUREAUS. 

ARCH^OLOGICAL  RESEARCH  at  Rome,  Athens, 
and  Olympia. 

ART  GALLERIES.  BAND  CONXERTS. 

BIOLOGICAL  RESEARCH,  Institute  in  Heligoland, 
besides  University  work. 

BOTANIC  GARDENS.       CENSUS  BUREAUS. 

CHURCHES,  State.  Lutheran,  Reformed,  (or  in  some 
places  the  Union)  and  Roman  Catholic.  Each  has 
grants  from  the  States.  (Even  the  Jews  in  Baden.) 
Jesuits  interdicted  in  all  parts  of  Germany.  So  all 
convents  and  religious  orders,  except  for  nursing. 

CLOCKS,  TOWN.  COAST  SURVEYS. 

CONCERT  HALLS. 

EDUCATIONAL  BUREAUS. 

ENGRAVING  BUREAUS. 

ETHNOLOGICAL  BUREAUS. 

EXPLORING  EXPEDITIONS.     African  and  Polar. 

EXPOSITIONS. 

FAIRS.     E- g-   in  World's  Fair  at  Chicago,  and  others. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  and  GF.OLOGICAL  SURVEYS. 

LIBRARIES. 

METEOROLOGICAL  BUREAUS,  in  Berlin,  &c. 

MONUMENTS  and  STATUES.     MUSEUMS. 

NEWSPAPERS.  The  Leipziger  Zeitiing  is  owned  and 
conducted  by  the  Saxon  Government.  It  is  a  daily 
newspaper,  and  not  an  official  organ.  Also  the  Rciclis 
Anzeiger,  Berlin. 

OBSERVATORIES.     Astro-Physical  at  Potsdam,  &:c. 

PRINTING.  The  Imperial  office  produces  a  small  rev- 
enue. 

READING  ROOMS. 


Hi 

SCHOOLS.     (State.) 
Kindergartens. 

Primary,  in    1891,  56,560,  with   120,030  teachers  and 
7,925,000  pupils. 

Secondary,    in    1891,    1,192.      (Expense,    242,400,000 
marks.) 

Colleges  and  Universities,  in  1892,  22,  with  2,431 
teachers,  and  30,415  Students. 
Normal.  Law. 

Medical.  Theological. 

Art.  Mines,  3. 

Music,  in  1892,  7. 

Technological,  48  (9  higher  Polytechnical). 
Forestry,  4.  Industrial,  23. 

Agricultural,  180,  also  many  night  schools,  and  90 
itinerant  teachers  who  lecture  before  agricultural  so- 
cieties.    (4  High  schools  of  Agriculture.) 
Beer  Brewing  Institute  at  Berlin. 
Military,  20.  Nautical,  48. 

Blind.  Deaf  and  Dumb. 

Expense  in  1892,  $24,000,000.  This  is  only  the  Imper- 
ial grants.  In  Prussia  alone  the  cost  of  public  instruc- 
tion in  1891-92  was  232,556,000  marks  (or  $58,131,500). 

TECHNICAL  AND  MECHANICAL  Experiment  Bu- 
reau. The  Imperial  Physico-Technical  Institute  in 
Charlottenburg  (Berlin)  exists  for  the  permanent  ele- 
vation of  Mechanical  technology,  carries  on  purely 
scientific  research,  and  makes  the  finest  physical  meas- 
urements. 

THEATRES.     "Imperial"  not  national. 

THEOLOGICAL  RESEARCH.     Oriental  Seminaries, 
also  Christian  Museum  at  Berlin. 

ZOOLOGICAL  GARDENS. 

ZOOLOGICAL  RESEARCH. 

(In  Berlin  in  1890  there  were   1S4  schools,  with  3,800 
teachers,  and  172,278  pupils.) 


77 
FOOD  PKODUCTION. 

In    Productive  enterprises   under   State   management, 

Germany  leads  the  world. 

BREWERIES.  COW  MEADOWS. 

DISTILLERIES. 

FARMING,  undertaken  for  criminals  and  unemployed. 
Especially  the  Sewage  Farm  of  Berlin  which  covers  30 
sq.  mi.  By  it  the  city  has  redeemed  much  barren  land, 
and  the  enterprise,  though  only  some  four  years  old 
and  undertaken  at  a  cost  of  120,000,000  marks,  is  al- 
ready beginning  to  pay  a  surplus  revenue. 

FISH  COMMISSIONS.       IRRIGATION. 

MINERAL  SPRINGS.        WINE  CELLARS. 

SALT  MINES  AND  WELLS. 

SALT  WORKS.  VINEYARDS. 

MEANS   PRODUCTION. 

BLAST  FURNACES.  CAR  BUILDING. 

CLAY  PITS.  COAL  MINES. 

COBALT  MINES.  COPPER  MINES. 

DRY  DOCKS.  3  Imperial  Docks  at  Wilhelmshafen, 
Kiel,  Dantzic. 

ENGINEERING  DEPARTMENT. 

FOUNDRIES.  IRON  MINES. 

LEAD  MINES,  LIME  QUARRIES. 

LOCOMOTIVE  WORKS.     14  Imperial  in  1892. 

MINES.  In  all  mines  in  1S92,  421,000  employees,  total 
wages,  $97,257,750- 

PEARL  FISHERIES.  PEAT  BEDS. 

PORCELAIN  FACTORIES.  The  "Dresden  China" 
factory  has  for  180  years  been  the  property  of  the  Gov- 
ernment of  Saxony.  It  employs  800  persofts,  and  is 
the  largest  porcelain  factory  in  the  world.  The  Royal 
Prussian  Porcelain  Factory  at  Berlin,  founded  in  1750, 


and  handed  over  to  the  State  in  1763,  has  also  an  ex- 
perimental and  teaching  institution. 

QUININE.  QUARRIES. 

ROPE  WALKS.  SAW  MILLS. 

SHIP  BUILDING.     Of  War  vessels. 

SILVER  MINES.  The  largest  in  Europe  is  at  Him- 
melsfurst  (at  Goslau  in  Saxony). 

SMELTING  WORKS.      ULTRAMARINE  WORKS. 

LAW  AND  ORDER. 

Commercial  and  criminal  laws  are  uniform  through- 
out the  Empire.  Not  so  civil.  All  Departments  dupli- 
cated in  each  of  the  26  states. 

AMBASSADORS. 

APPORTIONING  BOARDS. 

APPRAISING  COMMISSIONERS. 

ARBITRATION  COMMISSIONERS. 

ASSAYING  COMMISSIONERS. 

ASSESSING  BOARDS.      AUDITING  BOARDS. 

BANKRUPT  REGISTRY. 

CIVIL  SERVICE  BOARDS. 

COMPTROLLERS.  CONSULS. 

COPYRIGHT  BUREAUS. 

CORONERS,  or  "  Kreis-Physicus." 

CORPORATION  COUNSELS. 

COURTS  OF  JUSTICE.  Total  Judges  in  all  Courts  of 
the  Empire  (except  the  Supreme)  in  1893,  7,397.  Total 
convicted  in  Amts  and  Land-Gerichte  in  1891,  391,064. 

Supreme  or  Reichsgerichte,  79  Judges,  appointed  by 
Emperor  on  advice  of  Bundesrath.  Has  4  criminal 
and  6  civil  senates.     Appellate  over  all  other  courts. 

Oberlandesgerichte,  28.  7  Judges  in  its  criminal 
senate. 


79 

Landgerichte,  :!nd  court.  172,  with  5  Judges  for  cri- 
minal cases,  and  3  Judges  and  12  jurymen  for  other 
cases. 

Amtsgerichte,  lowest  court.  In  1S92,  1,919  each  with 
one  Judge. 

ENCUMBRANCE  BUREAUS. 

EXECUTIVE  DEPARTMENTS.  Emperor  and  Chan- 
cellor and  1 2  Secretaries  of  Departments  of  State. 

EMIGRATION  BUREAUS. 

INTER-STATE  COMMERCE  COMMISSIONS. 

JURY  COMMISSIONERS. 

JURIES  GRAND.  JURIES  PETIT. 

LEGISLATIVE  ASSEMBLIES. 

National.     Bundesrath,  58  members  appointed  by  the 
Governments  of  individual  states  for  each  session. 
Reichstag,  397  members  elected  for  5  years. 
Provincial.     The    26   States   are    kingdoms,    princi- 
palities, &c. 
Municipal,  in  all  towns. 

MARRIAGES,  must  be  civil. 

MINISTERS,  FOREIGN. 

PARK  COMMISSIONERS. 

PATENT  0FFICP:S.  POLICE. 

PORT  WARDENS.  POUNDS. 

PRISONS : 

Police  Stations.  Jails, 

Houses  of  Juvenile  Correction. 

Reformatories.  Penitentiaries. 

RAILROAD  COMMISSIONS. 
REGISTRARS  OF  DEEDS. 
SECRET  SERVICE.  RIVER  COMMISSIONS. 

RELIEF  AND  CHARITIES. 

Each   Gemeinde  (by  Imperial  law  of  1890)  must  pro- 
vide for  its  own  poor.     (Compare  the  English  method.) 


80 

Those  of  no  local  settlement  are  cared  for  by  the  State 

to  which  they  belong. 

ANNUITY  GRANTS.         CHARITY  BUREAUS. 

DISPENSARIES. 

HOMES  FOR 

Aged.  Orphans. 

Idiots.  Insane. 

Sailors.  Soldiers. 

HOSPITALS : 

General.  Epidemic. 

Insane.  Lying  In. 

Marine.  Eye  and  Ear. 

Orthopedic. 
HOUSES  OF  REFUGE. 
INSURANCE : 

Accident,  Imperial.     Obligatory  for  all  wage-earners. 

Includes  15,000,000  persons. 

Fire.  Life. 

Old  Age.     Includes  12,000,000  persons. 

Sickness.     Includes  7,000,000  persons.     3%  of  wages. 
LIFE  SAVING.  LIGHT  HOUSES. 

LODGING  HOUSES.     Cost  nothing  for  5  nights  in  a 

month. 
PAWN  SHOPS. 
PENSION  DEPARTMENT.    Budget  estimate  for  i  .S94, 

44,793,000  marks. 
POOR  HOUSES.     In  1885  total  receiving  public  relief, 

1,592,386  (3.4%  of  population). 
SIGNAL  CORPS. 

SANITATION  AND  SAFETY. 

BATHS,  in  many  places.       CEMETERIES. 
DRINKING  FOUNTS  AND  TROUGHS. 
ELECTRIC  LIGHTING. 
FIRE  DEPARTMENTS. 


<S1 

FORESTRY.  4,545,496  hectares  belong  to  the  State 
and  the  Crown.  Managed  by  a  staff  of  scientifically 
trained  men.  There  are  4  special  schools  of  forestry. 
All  forests  are  under  State  control  as  to  care,  &c.  From 
forests  and  domains  alone  Prussia  receives  a  revenue 
of  about  $19,440,000. 

FOUNTAINS. 

GARBAGE  AND  REFUSE  GATHERING. 

GAS  LIGHTING.  PARKS. 

HEALTH  DEPARTMENT. 

PHYSICIANS  FOR  THE  CITY. 

PLAY  GROUNDS.  QUARANTINE. 

SANITARIES.  SEATS  IN  PARKS. 

SEWERAGE  AND  DRAINAGE. 

SLAUGHTER  HOUSES.    STREET  CLEANING. 

STREET  SPRINKLING. 

WATERING-PLACES. 

WATER  WORKS,  in  all  large  and  most  small  towns, 
they  are  usually  owned  and  managed  by  the  munici- 
palities. 

STATE  INTERFERENCE. 

All  businesses  and  all  events  in  any  way  interesting  to 
or  affecting  the  community  as  a  whole  are  registered, 
licensed,  inspected  or  restricted.  The  responsibility  of 
the  individnal  to  society  has  reached  a  highly  socialized 
stage  of  consciousness  in  Germany.  The  form  of  Gov- 
ernment being  monarchy  makes  the  State  regulation 
assume  the  unwholesome  phase  of  "paternalism."  The 
ideal  should  be  regulation  "by  the  people." 

BERLIN  MUNICIPAL  AFFAIRS. 

In  Germany  the  municipal  interest  is  very  strong.  Albert  Shaw 
says  (Century  for  July,  1S94.)  "  The  German  city  holds  itself  re- 
sponsible for  the  education  of  all  ;  for  the  provision  of  amuse- 
ment and  the  means   of  recreation  ;   for   the  adaptation  of  the 


82 

training  of  the  young  to  the  necessities  of  gaining  a  livelihood  , 
for  the  health  of  families  ;  for  the  moral  interests  of  all ;  for  the 
civilizing  of  the  people  ;  for  the  promotion  of  individual  tlirift ; 
for  protection  from  various  misfortunes  ;  for  the  development  of 
advantages  and  opportunities  in  order  to  promote  the  industrial 
and  commercial  well-being  ;  and  incidentally  for  the  supply  of 
common  services  and  the  introduction  of  conveniences." 

Berlin's  new  progress  began  in  i86r,  the  year  of  Emperor  Wil- 
liam's accession  to  the  throne  of  Prussia.  It  was  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  modern  awakening.  When  the  New  Empire  was 
formed  and  Berlin  became  the  Capitol,  the  boom  took  on  still 
deeper  and  broader  interest.  The  greatest  schemes  were  de- 
vised for  enlarging  and  beautifying  the  city.  The  Royal  Gov- 
ernment had  from  of  old  made  and  repaired  the  streets, 
drained  the  city,  excavated  the  Spree,  and  made  the  bridges. 
But  private  companies  had  supplied  the  water  and  gas.  The 
schools  were  under  the  control  of  the  clergy,  or  were  private. 

In  1874  the  city  government  acquired  the  control  of  the  streets. 
It  began  to  widen,  straighten,  repave,  etc.  The  city  embanked 
the  Spree,  dredged  it  and  built  iron  bridges.  In  1873  the  city 
got  control  of  the  water  supply.  It  stopped  the  draining  of  the 
city  into  the  Spree,  and  undertook  a  new  disposal  of  the  sewage. 
Its  drainage  is  now  the  most  perfect  in  the  world.  The  total 
sewage  is  utilized  on  sewage-farms  at  a  safe  distance  from  the 
City.  These  now  cover  30  square  miles,  while  the  City  itself 
covers  but  25.  They  have  cost  upwards  of  30,000,000  marks, 
while  the  cost  of  tunnels,  &c.,  reaching  to  them  has  been  up- 
wards of  70,000,000  marks.  It  is  becoming  a  self-sustaining  work, 
and  will  soon  be  a  source  of  great  revenue.  New  sanitary  institu- 
tions were  established,  municipal  slaughterhouses,  market-halls, 
epidemic  and  infectious  hospitals,  public  wash  and  bath  houses, 
inspection  of  food,  houses,  and  whatever  might  affect  public 
health. 

The  City  gas-works,  begun  in  1870,  were  greatly  enlarged  in 
1875.  The  question  of  education  was  taken  over  to  the  City  con- 
trol. Especial  attention  was  paid  to  technical  and  scientific 
schooling.  Parks  and  play-grounds  were  greatly  multiplied. 
Gymnasiums  were  fitted  up.  The  City  began  to  direct  and  con- 
trol the  manner  of  housing  the  working  people.  The  street  rail- 
ways were  put  under  City  inspection,  and  City  officers  helped  to 
plan  and  extend  the  usefulness  of  this  public  convenience,  which 
was  still  left  under  private  ownership.  A  most  excellent  and  ex- 
tensive viaduct  system  of  elevated  railway  has  been  constructed. 


83 


NEW  ZEALAND. 

(BRITISH.) 

AREA,  104,471  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  668,651  in  1S91. 

New  Zealand  is  socially  the  most  interesting  country 
in  the  world  at  present.  People  there  are  not  conscious 
of  any  movement  towards  Socialism.  Mr.  Arthur  Cly- 
den  in  a  recent  letter  before  the  National  Liberal  Club  in 
London,  said  of  this  movement:  "I  should  describe  it 
as  a  supreme  attempt  by  Old  World  victims  of  bad  gov- 
ernment to  prevent  a  recurrence  of  the  evils  in  their  new 
homes  by  boldly  radical  legislation."  No  taunt  of 
"grand-motherly  legislation"  for  one  moment  deters 
them  from  the  resolute  exploitation  of  the  strong  arm 
of  the  law  for  their  protection  against  every  oppress- 
ive force,  whether  of  capital  or  class  interest. 

The  following  is  from  the  pen  of  Mr.  John  D.  Conn- 
olly, United  States  Consul  at  Aukland,  New  Zealand  : 

"The  land  laws  of  this  country  are  unique,  having  no  parallel 
in  the  modern  world,  that  I  am  aware  of.  Of  the  extension  of  the 
franchise  to  women  I  can  only  say  that  the  experiment  has  proved 
eminently  successful,  even  beyond  the  most  enthusiastic  advo- 
cates. Her  first  effort  has  raised  the  moral  tone  and  purified  to  a 
large  extent  the  moral  atmosphere  of  politics.  Woman  has  de- 
monstrated here  that  she  is  disinterested,  unselfish  and  fully 
worthy  of  political  confidence  reposed  in  her.  As  to  the  country 
having  drifted  into  socialism,  as  you  seem  to  think,  it  is  only  fair 
to  say  that  there  is  very  little  need  of  apprehension  in  that  respect, 
at  least  for  the  present.  At  the  same  time  it  cannot  be  denied  that 
the  tendency  of  legislation  appears  to  be  pointing  that  way.  If  it 
be  socialism  to  relieve  the  poor,  the  workingman,  the  artisan  and 
the  struggling  small  farmer  and  the  mechanics  from  the  burdens 
of  taxation  as  much  as  possible,  and  compel  the  monopolist,  the 
land-grabber,  the  purse-proud  and  the  affluent  members  of  society 
to  bear  the  weight  and  expense  of  government,  then  socialism  is 
certainly  in  full  swing  here.  If  it  be  socialism  to  shorten  the  hours 
of  the  laborer  to  eight  per  pay,  and  give  him  a  half  holiday  in 


84 

every  week,  besides  at  least  a  half  dozen  full  holidays  in  the  year 
under  full  pay,  thus  aifording  him  more  time  for  rest,  recreation 
and  intellectual  development  than  is  enjoyed  by  his  fellow  workers 
in  any  part  of  the  world,  then  indeed  it  is  undeniable  that  social- 
ism is  rampant  in  New  Zealand.  If  it  be  socialism  to  compel  the 
admission  of  more  pure  air  and  genial  sunshine  into  the  work-room 
and  factory,  under  government  supervision,  to  teach  the  laborers 
their  rights  and  how  to  lawfully  and  peacefully  obtain  them,  to 
force  the  earth-grabber  to  either  sell,  sub-divide  or  improve  his 
land  so  it  will  produce  what  nature  intended  it  should,  thereby 
administering  to  the  wants  of  the  people,  or  place  the  land  within 
the  reach  of  those  who  desire  homes — if  this  be  socialism,  then 
indeed  are  the  people  of  this  country  blessed  beyond  all  others, 
for  all  I  have  enumerated,  and  more,  are  they  enjoying  to  the  full- 
est extent  to-day.  There,  is  a  general  diffusion  of  wealth,  no 
great  poverty  and  not  a  single  millionaire  so  far  as  I  know.  Al- 
though legislation  does  not  directly  interfere  with  laudable 
accumulation  thrift  and  industry,  yet  there  is  no  denying  that  the 
general  tendency  is  toward  checking,  if  not  absolutely  preventing 
the  acquisition  of  vast  estates  in  the  hands  of  individuals  or  com- 
panies, to  the  detriment  of  the  people." 

DEFENSE  OF  NATION. 

MILITIA  in  1893,  total  8,654. 

Armories.  Armory  Boards. 

FORTS,  in  all  chief  harbors. 
NAVAL  RESERVE,  66  men. 

FINANCE  AND  LAND. 

SAVINGS  BANKS,  POSTAL.  Depositors,  84,488, 
and  deposits  at  the  end  of  1890,  $9.975.907- 

CUSTOMS  DEPARTMENT  (Foreign  Revenue). 

INTERNAL  REVENUE  DEPARTMENT. 

TREASURY  DEPARTMENT. 

TAX  COLLECTING  DEPARTMENT. 

LOANS,  Government.  New  Zealand  loans  money  to 
land-buyers  and  land-improvers. 

LAND,  Public.  The  Government  leases  its  land  at  5  % 
on  the  estimated  cash  price,  the  estimate  being  renew- 
ed every  3  years.     The  lessee  has  the  right  to  purchase 


85 

at  the  end  of  the  lease,  which  is  for  25  years.  Without 
the  purchase  right,  the  rent  is  4%  of  the  selling  price 
on  a  lease  of  999  years.  Both  kinds  of  leases  are  sub- 
ject to  occupation  and  improvements  yearly.  (Com- 
pare Mr.  Henry  George's  Proposals.) 
The  limit  of  purchase  holdings  is  640  acres  of  first- 
class  land,  and  2,000  acres  of  second-class.  On  lands 
whose  value,  improvements  deducted,  exceed  ;^5,ooo, 
there  is  an  addition  to  the  ordinary  land  tax,  in  the 
form  of  a  graduated  land  tax  on  a  scale  of  yi  d.  per  £ 
on  land  value  between  ;^5,ooo  and  ;^io,ooo  ;  ^  d.  per 
£  between  ;^io,ooo  and  ;^5o,ooo  ;  Yz  d.  per  £  increase 
for  each  additional  ^20,000,  up  to  the  maximum  of 
;^2 10,000  and  upwards,  at  which  the  extra  tax  is  i^d. 
per  £.  It  is  the  settled  policy  of  the  Government  to 
break  up  large  estates.  If  the  owner  objects  to  the 
Government  valuation,  he  is  allowed  to  value  it  him- 
self, and  he  gets  the  choice  of  paying  tax  on  the  Gov- 
ernment valuation  or  selling  it  to  the  Government  at 
his  own  lower  valuation. 

DISTRIBUTION. 

Probably  in  no  other  country  has  the  sense  of  the  gen- 
eral public  good  been  kept  so  constantly  before  the  minds 
of  those  in  authority.  They  have  realized  that  without 
Government  initiative  the  country  would  be  very  slowly 
opened  up,  and  that  with  it  the  general  prosperity  would 
be  incalculably  enhanced.  Hence,  Public  Works  have 
been  undertaken  in  advance  of  settlement.  Roads,  rail- 
ways, telegraph  and  water-works  (in  the  gold  fields) 
were  pushed  to  all  parts  of  the  country.  From  1872  to 
March  31,  1893,  a  sum  of  ^^26, 736,974  was  expended  in 
these  ways. 

ROADS,  everywhere,  are  public  property. 
STREETS,  the  same. 

STREET  RAILWAYS,  gradually  coming  under  muni- 
cipal ownership. 


86 

STREET  LIGHTING  is  done  at  municipal  expense, 
and  in  some  cases  the  plants  are  owned  and  opera- 
ed  by  the  towns. 

RAILWAYS.  In  1893  there  were  under  State  owner- 
ship 1,886  mi.  The  Government  first  assumed  owner- 
ship in  railways  in  1863  ;  and  in  1872  there  were  only 
65  mi.  in  operation. 

Up  to  March  31,  1892,  the  cost  to  the  State  had  been 
(for  building  and  purchase)  ^15,497,783. 
Receipts  for  1893,  ^{^1,181,521.      Expenses,  ;^732.i4i. 
Profits,  net,  ;^449,3So.      It  is  hardly  possible  to  esti- 
mate  the   profits   that   have    accrued   to   the   colony 
through  increase  of   land  values,  stimulation  of  pro- 
duction, cheapening  of  transit,  &c.,  &c.,  by  Govern- 
ment ownership  and  enterprise  in  railways. 
(Under  private  ownership  there  are  reported  150  mi.) 

EXPRESS  SERVICE.        HARBORS. 

WHARVES  AND  PIERS. 

BRIDGES.  BRIDGE  ENGINEERS. 

SURVEYORS.  MARKETS. 

POSTAL  SERVICE:  number  of  offices  in  1892,  1,263. 
Receipts,  in  1892,  ^{^214, 002.  Expenses,  for  Post  and 
Telegraph  together,  ^278,394.  Profits,  net,  for  both, 
i:58.546. 

TELEGRAPH:  number  of  mi.  in  1892,  5,479;  mi.  of 
wire,  13,459.  In  1893  the  length  of  line  was  5,513  mi.; 
and  the  number  of  offices,  640.  Receipts  in  1893, 
$547,729.  Government  business  (free)  would  have 
amounted  to  ;^i38,903,  making  a  total  of  $685,635. 
Expenses,  ^^590,493.     Actual  profits,  ;i&75,i42. 

Employees  in  Telegraph  and  Postal  service  in  1892,  2,299. 

TELEPHONE  :  about  3,160  mi.  of  wire.  It  is  in  charge 
of  the  Telegraphic  Department.  For  the  year  ending 
March  31,  1894,  the  receipts  were  ;^  104,502  ;  expenses, 
;^  1 06,664.  If  to  the  receipts  are  added  the  free  Gov- 
ernment services,  there  is  left  a  profit  of  $24,800.    The 


87 

average  rent  or  Telephones  is  $24  per  year.  (Just 
i-io  of  the  amount  which  New  Yorkers  have  to  pay 
the  private  monopoly  of  the  Bell  Telephone  Co.) 

EDUCATIOX. 

AGRICULTURAL  BUREAUS. 

ART  GALLERIES. 

ARCHAEOLOGICAL  RESEARCH. 

BAND  CONCERTS.  BOTANIC  GARDENS. 

BIOLOGICAL  RESEARCH. 

CENSUS  BUREAUS.  CLOCKS,  TOWN. 

COAST  SURVEYS.  EXPOSITIONS. 

EDUCATIONAL  BUREAUS. 

FAIRS. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  SURVIlYS. 

GEOLOGICAL  SURVEYS. 

LIBRARIES.     In    1S92    there    were    298    open    to    tb.c 

public. 
METEOROLOGICAL  BUREAUS. 
MONUMENTS  AND  STATUES. 
MUSEUMS.  OBSERVATORIES. 

PRINTING,  of  Government  documents,  reports,  &c. 
READING  ROOMS. 
SCHOOLS,  PUBLIC. 

Kindergartens. 

Primary  in  1892,   1,369,  with  3,368  teachers,  and   124,- 

833  pupils. 

Secondary  in   1892,  28,  with  over  166  teachers,  and 

2,327  pupils. 

Colleges  in   1892,  4,  with   39   professors,  and   1,063 

students. 

University.  Law. 

Normal,  2.  Medical. 

Art,  2.  Domestic  Economy. 


88 

Technological.  Agricultural,  i. 

Blind.  Deaf  and  Dumb. 

Expense  borne  by  the  general  Government  in   1S92, 
;^4i5,55o  (or  $2,023,728). 

FOOD  PRODUCTION. 

FARMING.     4  Government  farms  have  recently  been 
started  (1894). 

MEANS  PRODUCTION. 

The    Government,   general  and    municipal,   is   yearly 
taking  on  enterprises  of  productive  activity.     It  already 
has  the  following,  and  probably  others  : 
CAR  BUILDING.  FOUNDRIES. 

ENGINEERING  DEPARTMENT. 
LOCOMOTIVE  WORKS. 
TIMBER.  SAW  MILLS. 

WATER-WORKS,  in  gold  fields.     They  have  yielded 

a  handsome  State  revenue. 

I.AW  AND  ORDER. 

No  country  occupies  a  more  advanced  position  in  the 
socialized    condition    of  governing   enterprise.     Almost 
the  only  exception  is  in  the  Governor  and  Council  hold- 
ing office  by  British  Imperial  appointment.     This  disad- 
vantage, however,  is  doubtless  offset  by  certain  defensive 
and  commercial  advantages  furnished  by  the  Imperial 
Government.     The  franchise  is  now  extended  to  both 
men  and  women  of  European  and  native  lineage.    With- 
out stating  particulars,  I  will  simply  say  that  the  follow- 
ing departments  of  Law  and  Order  are  organized  : 
APPORTIONING  BOARDS. 
APPRAISING  COMMISSIONERS. 
ARBITRATION  COMMISSIONERS. 
ASSAYING  COMMISSIONERS. 


89 

AUDITING  BOARDS.        ASSESSING  BOARDS. 
BANKRUPT  REGISTRY. 
CIVIL  SERVICE  BOARDS. 
COMPTROLLERS.  CONSULS. 

CORONERS.  COPYRIGHT  BUREAU. 

CORPORATION  COUNSELS. 
COURTS  OF  JUSTICE  : 

Civil.  Crimixal. 

Supreme.  Circuit. 

Claims.  Polick. 

Magistrate. 
EXECUTIVE  DEPARTMENT  :    Governor,  appointed 

by  Imperial  Government,  and  7  ministers. 
JURIES,  PETIT.  IMMIGRATION  BUREAU. 

JURY  COMMISSIONERS. 
LEGISLATIVE  ASSEMBLIES : 

National.     Legislative  Council  of  47  members,  nomi- 
nated by  the  Crown  for  7  years  (before  1891,  for  life). 

(There  are  2  Maoris  in  the  Council.) 

House  of  Representatives  of  74  members,  elected  for  3 

years.     (There  are  4  Maoris.) 

Provincial.  Municipal. 

MARRIAGES.  PATENT  OFFICES. 

PARK  COMMISSIONERS. 
POLICE  in  1891,  484.  POUNDS. 

PRISONS  : 

Police  Stations.  Jails. 

Reformatories.  Pp:mtentiaries. 

RAILROAD  COMMISSIONS. 
REGISTRARS  OF  DEEDS. 

RELIEF  AXD  CHARITIES. 

CHARITY  BUREAUS.      DISPENSARIES. 

HOMES  FOR: 
Orphans,  1,492  children  in  1S91. 


90 

HOSPITALS  : 

General.  Epidemic. 

Infant.  Insane. 

ABORIGINES  DEPARTMENT. 

INSURANCE,  LIFE.  Provided  by  Government  in  1869. 
In  August,  1893,  the  accumulated  fund  was  over  £^,- 
000,000.  In  1892  there  were  30,316  pohcies,  issuing 
insurance  to  the  amount  of  ;£^i6, 036,220. 

LIFE  SAVING.  LIGHT  HOUSES. 

PENSION  DEPARTMENT. 

POOR  HOUSES.  In  1891  there  were  667  indoor 
paupers. 

PUBLIC  TRUST  OFFICE,  established  in  1S72.  In 
1892  there  were  being  administered  1,912  estates,  worth 
;^i,284, 759.  It  is  a  sort  of  Estate  Savings  Bank,  guar- 
anteed by  Government. 

UNEMPLOYED,  WORK  FOR.  There  is  a  Bureau 
of  Industries,  whose  central  office  is  at  Wellington  ;  it 
has  a  branch  office  in  each  large  town.  At  any  one 
of  these  any  person  can  get  information  as  to  wages 
and  employment  in  any  part  of  New  Zealand.  Its 
services  are  free  of  charge.  From  March  31,  1892,  to 
March  31,  1893,  3,874  men  were  put  in  the  way  of  em- 
ployment. 

SANITATION  AND  SAFETY. 

BATHS  AND  SANITARIUM  are  run  by  Government 
on  a  50  acre  reserve  in  the  Rotorua  District,  where 
there  are  celebrated  mineral  waters.  The  rate  is  very 
low,  and  the  preference  is  given  to  those  patients  who 
are  not  able  to  pay  much. 

DRINKING  FOUNTS  AND  TROUGHS. 

ELECTRIC  LIGHTING. 

FIRE  DEPARTMENTS. 

FORESTRY.  FOUNTAINS. 


91 

GARBAGE  AND  REFUSE  GATHERING. 
GAS  LIGHTING.  PARKS. 

HEALTH  DEPARTMENT. 
QUARANTINE.  SANITARIES. 

SEATS  IN  PARKS.  STREET  CLEANING 

SEWERAGE  AND  DRAINAGE. 
WATER-WORKS. 

ENGLISH  COLONY  TENDENCIES. 

Whenever  and  wherever  the  Anglo-Saxon  has  gone  away  from 
his  native  home  (during  this  century),  he  has  formed  a  settlement 
as  free  as  possible  from  the  selfish,  class-begotten  errors  of  the 
mother  land.  Great  Britain  (and  in  a  less  degree  the  United  States) 
has  been  the  source  of  emigration  for  peopling  Australia,  Tas- 
mania, New  Zealand,  Fiji,  Hawaii,  much  of  the  West  Indies,  Falk- 
land Islands,  Mauritius,  and  many  parts  of  Africa.  In  the  forma- 
tion of  the  new  governments,  the  great  aim  has  been  to  bar  out 
the  tendency  to  inequality  resulting  from  aristocracies  in  politics 
and  commerce.  Thus  in  no  case  has  a  government  been  lormed 
with  an  hereditary  upper  house.  That  next  great  danger,  viz : 
the  aristocracy  that  rears  itself  on  money,  has  had  its  chances  lim- 
ited by  the  lack  of  opportunity  for  monopolistic  enterprise.  In 
nearly  every  instance  the  Governments  are  taking  into  their  own 
hands  the  things  in  which  lurk  the  greatest  dangers,  e.  g.,  the 
Railways,  Telegraphs,  Postal  and  E.xpress  service,  and  m  many 
instances  the  Banking.  Numerous  other  blocks  to  selfishness 
have  been  made  in  the  way  of  Government  management  of  mines, 
canals,  roads,  bridges,  forests,  &c..  and  in  the  municipal  control 
of  water-works,  city  lighting,  street  railways,  markets,  &c. 

People  who  emigrate  do  so  to  better  their  conditions.  They 
seek  to  avoid  the  burdens  imposed  upon  them  by  unjust  social 
arrangements  at  home.  This  explains  why  those  who  peopled 
New  Zealand  did  not  take  the  English  House  of  Lords  with  them. 
They  had  enough  of  this  institution  as  a  class  when  they  lived  in 
Great  Britain.  When  they  formed  their  Government  they  did  it 
on  an  improved  and  more  humane  basis. 

Now,  this  was  exactly  the  position  of  our  fore-fathers  in  the 
United  States.  They  left  the  old  countries  for  the  same  reasons. 
They  formed  their  State  with  the  same  ends  in  view,  viz:  the 
avoidance  of  those  grave  difficulties  which  they  left  behind.  In 
those  early  days,  these  liberties  were  not  to  be  had,  however, 
without  fighting  for  them,  for  the  fatherland  reached  out  a  grasp- 
ing hand  to  further  control  them  beyond  the  sea.    Those  here  who 


92 

prospered  most  sought  to  have  law  and  government  specially  sub- 
serve their  interests.  In  a  hundred  years  it  has  come  about  that 
they  have  developed  here  a  condition  of  inequality  which  is  hardly 
distinguishable  from  that  which  they  left.  (Read  the  satirical 
story  "Dogs  and  Fleas,"  which  is  really  a  history  of  the  United 
States  written  in  a  most  facetious  manner.) 

The  new  industrial  era  began  before  the  colonization  of  Aus- 
tralia and  New  Zealand.  Hence  the  evils  and  their  cause  were 
plainer  seen,  and  they  could  be  in  great  measure  avoided.  New 
Zealand  is  the  best  illustration.  Settled  later,  it  has  profited  by 
the  experience  of  the  world  elsewhere;  and  hence  its  almost  un- 
paralleled progress  in  social  development.  Only  a  few  of  the 
great  evils  that  weighed  down  the  nations  of  the  past  have  taken 
deep  hold  here  as  yet.  Hereditary  pretence  in  shape  of  idle  aris- 
tocratic families,  they  have  none.  Opportunity  for  commercial 
monopoly  of  sources  of  production  or  means  of  distribution  of 
national  products,  they  are  preventing.  The  tenure  of  the  land  is 
the  most  socially  equitable  on  the  globe,  while  all  the  chief  means 
of  transit,  transportation,  and  communication  are  taken  into  the 
State's  own  hands.  Again,  they  have  seen  that,  granting  the  ab- 
surdity of  aristocracy's  claims  in  general,  there  falls  to  the  ground 
also  the  abominations  of  primogeniture,  and  of  exclusive  male 
suffrage. 


ABYSSINIA. 

(ITALIAN.) 
AREA,  190,000  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  about  5,000,000. 

At  first  thought,  one  might  wonder  at  seeing  the 
name  of  such  a  nation  as  the  Abyssinian  in  a  book  col- 
lecting the  facts  regarding  concrete  socialism.  But 
further  reflection  will  teach  us  that  all  government,  all 
social  aggregation,  all  human  cooperation,  is  socialism. 
Indeed,  the  extent  to  which  the  cooperative  spirit  is  car- 
ried, measures  the  development  of  a  nation  in  civilization. 
It  is  the  humanization  of  effort.  It  is  the  eradication  of 
self-centeredness,  and  the  putting  in  its  place  of  an  un- 
selfish, social,  mutually  helping  feeling.  Hence,  the 
lowest  tribe  of  barbarians,  if  they  have  begun  tribal 
relations,  if  they  have  organized  themselves  into  mutual 


93 

helpfulness  in  any  sense,  have  to  that  extent  become 
socialized.  Therefore,  it  must  be  affirmed  that  the  pop- 
ular notion  regarding  socialism  is  merely  a  notion.  All 
government  is  socialized  effort.  Socialism  is  the  ism  of 
society.  It  is  simply  the  explanation  of  society.  In 
human  nature  there  are  two  strong  tendencies  ;  the  one 
tends  to  the  gratification  of  the  selfish  impulses,  the 
other,  to  the  demands  of  the  social  relations.  Each  is 
mutually  dependent  upon  the  other.  The  selfish  im- 
pulses naturally  rebel  against  social  regulations.  But 
the  welfare  of  the  individual,  his  maintainance  and  de- 
velopment, his  opportunity  for  expanding  and  enlarging 
himself  as  a  personality,  depend  upon  the  keeping  of  his 
own  and  others'  selfishness  in  curb.  Hence,  those  nations 
are  most  primitive  in  which  selfishness  and  individualism 
are  most  rampant.  Those  countries  which  the  world 
calls  the  highest  are  the  most  differentiated  in  social 
functions,  and  the  most  integrated  in  social  cooperation 
in  the  performance  of  those  functions.  This  is  abun- 
dantly shown  by  the  facts  enumerated  in  this  volume ; 
and  we  must  insist  that  the  popular  howl  against  the 
further  socialization  of  human  effort  arises  either  from 
dense  ignorance,  or  from  determined  disposition  to  con- 
tinue in  the  holding  of  unjust  advantages. 

Barbarous,  as  we  look  upon  countries  like  Abyssinia, 
they  have  already  begun  and  carried  out  a  long  way  the 
cooperative  spirit.  In  the  matter  of  Defense  they  have 
for  centuries  maintained  a  fighting  army.  They  assist 
each  other  in  matters  of  Production  and  Distribution. 
Without  the  machinery  of  Law  and  Order  there  would 
be  no  aggregation  of  people  called  Abyssinians.  There 
must  be  necessarily  arrangements  and  a  division  of  func- 
tions for  the  accomplishment  of  legislative,  judicial,  and 
executive  matters.  Among  primitive  peoples  the  differ- 
ent phases  of  the  machinery  of  government  are  not 
clearly  differentiated,  and  yet  they  have  their  modes  of 
Assessing  and  Collecting  Taxes  for  the  accomplishment 
of  the  common  good.     They  legislate  on  marriage  rela- 


94 

tions,  and  define  rights  in  a  thousand  ways.  They  pro- 
vide for  the  Sanitation  and  Safety  of  the  community  by 
common  provision.  They  look  after  Relief  of  the  needy, 
and  feel  and  bear  each  others  woes  to  a  considerable  ex- 
tent. The  vast  difference  between  them  and  the  higher 
socialized  nations,  shows  the  incalculable  value  of  every 
stage  of  socialization  of  human  energy  and  human 
powers. 

ALGERIA. 

(FRENCH.) 

AREA,  184,474  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  4,124,732111 1891. 

DEFENSE  OF  NATION. 

This  is  a  French  colony,  and  a  detachment  of  the  reg- 
ular army  is  stationed  here. 
MILITIA,  in  1888,  total,  54,000. 

FINANCE. 

French  money  is  in  circulation. 

CUSTOMS  DEPT.  employed  1,061  officers  in  1888. 
INTER.  REV.  DEPT.        TREASURY  DEPT, 
TAX  COLLECTING  DEPT. 

DISTRIBUTION. 
PATHS,  over  mountains. 
ROADS,  in  1893  there  were  2,922,965  km. 
STREETS,  in  all  towns. 
RAILWAYS,  under  State   ownership.      In  1892  there 

were    1,956    mi.      The   receipts    for   that    year   were 

were    26,445,599   fr. 

HARBORS.  WHARVES  AND  PIERS. 

POSTAL  AND  TELEGRAPHIC  SERVICE  are  under 
State  ownership  and  management.  Their  combined 
receipts  for  1891  were  4,022,070  fr.;  expenses,  4,060,- 
394fr.;  and  a  deficit  of  38,324  fr. 


95 

(There  were  4,310  mi.  of  telegraph  line,  and  10,000  mi.  of  wire  be- 
longing to  private  companies  in  1890.  These  had  356  offices. 
The  companies  are  all  sub-ventioned  by  the  French  Govern- 
ment.) 

EDUCATION. 

Education  is  backward,  yet  there  are  various  public 
instrumentalities  at  work,  and  a  good  progress  is  being 
made.  Among  the  educational  undertakings  by  State 
and  municipalities  are  the  following  : — Census  Bureaus, 
Churches  (the  various  faiths  receiving  State  grants). 
Coast  Surveys,  Educational  Bureau,  Expositions,  Fairs, 
Geographical  Surveys,  Libraries,  Museums  and  Schools. 
Of  Kindergartens  there  were  in  I'Sqi,  154.  Primary,  921, 
with  78,963  pupils.  A  few  High  Schools  ;  and  10  Aca- 
demies and  Colleges,   having   1,336   students. 

Expense  provided  for  in  the  State  Budget  for  1894, 
5.651,793  fr- 

LAW  AND  ORDER. 

This  phase  of  the  social  order  is  being  reconstructed 
after  the  French  type,  and  is  provided  for  in  the  following 
ways  : — Assessing,  Auditing  and  Apportioning  Boards  ; 
Consuls  ;  Civil,  Criminal  and  Supreme  Courts,  and  Chief 
Executive  Department  (consisting  of  French  Governor 
General,  assisted  by  a  Council)  ;  Municipal  and  Provin- 
cial Legislative  Functionaries  ;  Marriages  by  civil  author- 
ity ;  Registrars  of  Deeds;  Police  regulation  (in  1888  a 
force  of  5,091)  ;  Prisons,  (Police  Stations,  Jails  and  Peni- 
tentiaries. Some  idea  of  the  organization  of  these 
prisons  may  be  obtained  from  the  report  that  in  1888, 
52,494  persons  were  before  the  Police  Courts,  and  498 
persons  were  convicted  of  crimes). 

RELIEF  AND  CHARITIES. 

The  extent  to  which  the  extremely  needy  and  the  sick 
are  cared  for,  is  one  of  the  best  measures  of  the  moral 
feeling  of  a  nation.  This  highly  developed  human  regard 
is  a  counteraction  against  the  blind  force  of  natural  se- 


96 

lection,  and  the  people  in  whom  it  strongly  prevails 
may  be  expected  to  cooperate  more  earnestly  and  ex- 
tensively in  other  ways. 

Algeria  has  Charity  Bureaus,  General  Hospitals,  Light 
Houses,  Pension  Department,  and  some  Poor  Houses. 

SANITATION  AND  SAFETY. 

Almost  as  soon  as  a  people  pass  beyond  mere  tribal 
relations  and  assume  governmental  arrangements,  the 
very  necessity  of  numbers  and  the  closer  and  more 
complicated  relations  compels  some  general  public  pro- 
visions for  Sanitation  and  Safety.  Among  the  higher 
peoples  these  will  be  very  elaborate,  and  the  division 
of  functions  extensive.  In  countries  like  Algeria,  which 
are  being  trained  out  of  barbarism  under  the  tutelage 
of  one  of  the  highest  socialized  nations,  such  arrange- 
ments are  necessarily  incomplete.  But  there  are  be- 
ginnings in  the  provision  of: — Drinking  Founts  and 
Troughs,  Fire  Departments,  Fountains,  Forestry,  Gar- 
bage and  Refuse  Gathering,  Health  Departments,  Parks, 
Quarantine,  Sewerage  and  Drainage,  and  Water-works. 


ANDORRA. 

AREA,  175  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  6,000. 

A  very  interesting  little  republic  in  the  Pyranees.  It 
has  a  Militia  of  600  men.  They  are  commanded  by  the 
magistrates.  The  two  chief  magistrates  are  representa- 
tives of  the  Spanish  Bishop  of  Urgel  and  the  French  re- 
public. They  constitute  an  Appellate  Court,  and  are 
each  an  Appellate  Court  from  the  other.  The  republic 
provides  for  the  Roads  and  Streets,  the  Street  Lighting 
and  many  public  works.  It  has  its  system  of  Education, 
largely  under  State  Church  control.  There  is  the  usual 
simple  machinery  of  Law  and  Order,  and  various  insti- 
tutions of  a  Charitable  order. 


97 

ANGOLA. 

(PORTUGUESE.) 

AREA,  457,500  sq.  mi.        POPULATION,  about  2,000,000  in  1892. 

This  is  one  of  the  promising  new  regions  in  West 
Africa  and  is  being  molded  on  the  Portuguese  basis.  It 
is  very  new,  and  the  European  population  is  still  very 
small.  Yet  provision  is  already  on  the  way  for  the  or- 
ganization of  native  Defense  Force,  for  the  construction 
of  Public  Roads  and  the  improvement  of  other  public 
utilities,  for  the  establishment  of  various  means  for  Pub- 
lic Instruction,  and  for  the  Legal  Regulation  of  society. 

ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC. 

AREA,  1,125,086  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  4,257,000  in  1892. 

DEFENSE  OF  NATION. 

ARMY,  REGULAR,  in  1892.  total,  19,020. 

OFFICERS,  1,398.  MEN,  17,622. 

MILITIA,  in  1892,  total,  480,000. 

Armories.  Armory  Board. 

NAVY  in  1892,  total,  1,530  men. 

Port  Defense  Ships,  2.         Cruisers,  17. 

Torpedo  Boats,  12.  Total  War  Vessels,  31. 

FINANCE. 

BANKS.  The  Banks  are  all  semi-socialized  institutions. 
The  National  Bank  was  opened  December  i,  1891,  with 
a  capital  of  ;^5o, 000, 000.  It  has  51  branches.  There 
are  14  State  Banks  (less  socialized).  (Compare  the 
Bank  of  France.)  There  are  Savings  and  Loan  Banks 
under  Government  management.  Capital,  $300,000. 
Operations  in  1891,  ;^545,246. 

COINAGE  by  General  Government  alone. 

CUSTOMS  DEPT.  INTER  REV.  DEPT. 

NOTE  ISSUE  by  National  Bank  in  1S93,  $306,000,000. 

TAX  COLLECTING  DEPT.     TREASURY  DEPT. 


98 
DISTRIBUTION. 

PATHS.  ROADS.  STREETS. 

EXPRESS  SERVICE,  in  part  by  Government. 

RAILWAYS,  under  State  ownership.  In  1S91  there 
were  1,817  irii-     (Under  private  ownership   8,023  n^i-) 

CANALS  AND  NAVIGABLE  RIVERS,  2,200  mi. 

HARBORS.  WHARVES  AND  PIERS. 

BRIDGES.  BRIDGE  ENGINEERS. 

SURVEYORS. 

POSTAL  SERVICE  in  1893  there  were  946  offices  (in- 
cluding telegraph.)     The  Postal  receipts  for  1893  were 

;$!, 925.950- 

TELEGRAPH  in  1893  the  State  owned  11,250  mi.  of 
line,  and  its  receipts  were  $746,421,  (The  railroad 
companies  owned  8,050  mi.,  and  private  companies, 
1,115-) 

EDUCATION. 

AGRICULTURAL  BUREAUS. 

BOTANIC  GARDENS.   CENSUS  BUREAUS. 

CHURCH,  STATE,  Roman  Catholic  (others  tolerated). 

In  1891  the  expense  to  the  State  was  $272,880. 
COAST  SURVEYS.      EDUCATIONAL  BURP:AUS. 
EXPOSITIONS.  FAIRS. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  and  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEYS. 
LIBRARIES.  MUSEUMS  (i  National). 

METEOROLOGICAL  BUREAU,  i. 
MONUMENTS  AND  STATUES. 
OBSERVATORIES  (i  National). 
PRINTING  for  Government. 
READING  ROOMS. 
SCHOOLS,  PUBLIC,  in  1893: 

Primary,  3,028,  with  6,241  teachers,  and  227,450  pupils. 


99 

Secondary,   i6,  with   450  teachers,  and  3,189  pupils 

(in  1892). 

Colleges    and    Universities,     2,    with    about    900 

students. 

Normal,  21.  Law. 

Medical  (Women  admitted). 

Theological,  5.  Domestic  Economy. 

Technological,  3.  Industrial. 

Military,  i.  Nautical,  i. 

Expense  by  General  Government  in  1S90,  ^lo, 415, 789. 

FOOD  PKODUCTIOX. 

IRRIGATION  by  Government  is  extensive.  Ditches 
and  canals  are  made  by  provinces  (also  extensively  by 
individuals). 

LAW  AND  ORDER. 

AMBASSADORS.  ASSESSING  BOARDS. 

APPORTIONING  BOARDS. 

APPRAISING  COMMISSIONERS. 

ASSAYING  COMMISSIONERS. 

AUDITING  BOARDS.      ATTORNEY  GENERAL. 

CONSULS.  COPYRIGHT  BUREAU. 

COURTS  OF  JUSTICE: 

District  (Civil  and  Criminal).     In  1891,  3,800  crimi- 
nal cases. 
Supreme,  5  judges. 

EXECUTIVE  DEPT.,  the  President  of  the  Republic 
and  his  Cabinet. 

LEGISLATIVE  ASSEMBLIES  : 

National  Congress  :   Senate  of  30  members,  elected 
for  9   years,   and    House  of    Deputies,    88    members, 
elected  for  4  years. 
Provincial.  Municipal. 

MARRIAGES.  MINISTERS,  FOREIGN. 

PATENT  OFFICES.  POLICE,  for  all  cities. 


100 

PRISONS : 

Jails.  Penitentiaries. 

The  average  number  in  the  prisons  of  Buenos  Ayres 

was  900. 

REGISTRARS  OF  DEEDS. 

RELIEF  AND  CHARITIES. 

Under  this  head  are  to  be  named  the  most  usual  insti- 
tutions only  :  Charity  Bureaus,  Dispensaries,  General 
Hospitals,  Indian  Dept.,  Pension  Dept.,  Poor  Houses, 
&c. 

SANITATION  AND  SAFETY. 

Comprises  provision  in  the  way  of  Drinking  Founts 
and  Troughs,  Fire  Depts.,  Forestry,  Fountains,  Garbage 
and  Refuse  Gathering,  Health  Depts.,  Parks,  Quaran- 
tine, Sanitaries,  Seats  in  Parks,  Sewerage  and  Drainage, 
and  Street  Cleaning. 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 

AREA,  265,189  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  42,635,342  in  1S90. 

ARMY,  REGULAR,  in  1893,  total  347  297. 

Officers,  4,116.  Men,  3/^3,181. 

In  1893-4  the  Budget  estimate  of  expense  was  129,459,- 

268  florins. 
MILITIA,  in  TS93,  total,  355,127. 

Armories.  Armory  Boards.  Forts. 

NAVY,  in  1893,  total,  13,698  men. 

Officers  of  ships  and  marines,  1,189. 

Seamen  and  marines,  12,509. 

Battle  ships,  8.  Port  defense  ships,  10. 

Cruisers,  31.  Torpedo  boats,  55. 

Total  War  Vessels,  106. 

In  1893-4  Budget  estimate  of  expense,  12,577,680  fl. 
NAVAL  RESERVE,  9,026. 


101 
FINANCE  AND  LAND. 

BANK,  the  Austro-Hungarian,  a  semi-socialized  insti- 
tution, has  exclusive  note  issue. 

BANKS,  SAVINGS,  POSTAL,  in  1S91,  7,767  ;  with 
1,080,375  depositors,  and,  67,237,583  fl.  deposited. 

COINAGE,  only  by  State. 

CUSTOMS  DEPT.  INTER.  REV.  DEPT. 

NOTE  ISSUE  by  National  Bank. 

TAX  COLLECTING  DEPT.     TREASURY  DEPT. 

LAND    STATE,  3,963,391  acres;  District  and  Parish 

land,  12,338,930  acres  ;  Church  lands,  3,229,257  acres  ; 

Educational  lands,  189,145  acres  ;  total  socialized  lands, 

19,720,723  acres;  or,  28,27  %  of  total  area,  (69,726,170 

acres. 

DISTRIBUTION. 

ROADS  AND  PATHS,  in  1889,  103,800  mi. 

STREETS,  in  all  towns  and  cities. 

STREET  LIGHTING,    under  municipal  ownership  is 

common. 
EXPRESS  SERVICE  is  directed  by  government. 
RAILWAYS,    under  State  ownership,^  in   1892,    11,337 

km.  (or  7,028.94  mi.) 

(Of  railways  under  private  ownership,  there  are  9,4^'! 

km.  worked  by  Government;  and,  7,558  km.  worked 

by  the  companies.) 

Sir  A.  Nicholson,  British  Consul  General  in  Hungary, 

in  a  report  of  April  10,  1890,  says  : 

"The  j-ear  1889  will  be  noteworthy  in  the  history  of  Hun^^rian 
railways,  as  it  witnessed  the  introduction  of  the  Zone  tariff  on  all 
State  railways.  The  Zone  system  allows  tickets  to  be  sold  like 
postage  stamps,  good  for  any  distance  within  the  zone  (or  radius) 
where  issued.  Since  the  introduction  of  the  new  cheap  traffic  on 
the  ist  of  August,  1889,  to  the  31st  of  December,  1889,  the  pas- 
senger traffic  increased  by  over  3,000,000  persons,  and  the  gross 
receipts,  by  over  /"so.ooo  (about  $250,000).  As  the  total  number 
of  passengers  annually  carried  by  Hungarian  railways  has  not 
hitherto  exceeded  15,500,000,  the  large  increase  in  5  months,  is 


102 

remarkable.  It  is  said  that  no  extra  expense  has  been  incurred, 
and,  in  fact,  that  economies  have  been  effected  in  the  ticket-issu- 
ing department,  owing  to  the  facilities  now  afforded  for  obtaining 
tickets  at  post-ofhces,  stores,  and  other  places  in  town."  In  real 
truth,  the  Hungarians,  send  themselves  by  stamps,  just  as  they 
and  we  do  our  letters.  This  is  a  showing  that  merits  the  most 
careful  attention,  and  especially  when  it  is  remembered  that  the 
State  railways  in  Hungary  covered  only  6,170  mi.  The  fare  is  so 
low  that  a  ride  of  6  mi.  costs  only  i  cent.  Moreover,  the  wages  of 
railway  men  have  doubled  since  Government  ownership  began. 

CANALS  AND  NAVIGABLE  RIVERS,  7,200  mi. 
HARBORS.  WHARVES  AND  PIERS. 

BRIDGES.  BRIDGE  ENGINEERS. 

SURVEYORS. 

POSTAL  SERVICE :  number  of  offices,  in  Austria,  in 
1892,  4,866;  in  Hungary,  in  1S91,  4,189.  Receipts  for 
Post  and  Telegraph  in  Austria  for  1892,  35,993,560  fl.; 
expenses,  31,750,837  fl.;  profits,  4,242,723  fl.  Receipts 
for  Post  and  Telegraph  in  Hungary  for  189 1,  13,723,856 
fl.;  expenses,  9,561,836  fl.;  profits,  4,162,020  fl.  Total 
net  profits  for  Austria-Hungary,  8,404,743  fl. 

TELEGRAPH,  STATE  LINE  in  1892,  31,862  mi.;  and 
89,344  mi.  of  wire. 

TELEPHONES.  MARKETS, 

EDUCATION. 

AGRICULTURAL  BUREAUS. 

ART  GALLERIES. 

ARCH^OLOGICAL  RESEARCH. 

BAND  CONCERTS.  BOTANIC  GARDENS. 

BIOLOGICAL  RESEARCH. 

CENSUS  BUREAUS.  CLOCKS,  TOWN. 

CHURCHES.  The  Budget  estimate  of  Government 
grants  to  various  churches  for  1894-5  is  7, 148,050  fl.  for 
Austria,  and  8,681,659  fl.  for  Hungary.  There  is  full 
liberty  of  conscience. 

COAST  SURVEYS.     EDUCATIONAL  BURS. 


103 

EXPOSITIONS.  FAIRS. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  and  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEYS. 
LIBRARIES.  MUSEUMS. 

METEOROLOGICAL  BUREAUS. 
MONUMENTS  AND  STATUES. 
OBSERVATORIES.  READING  ROOMS. 

PRINTING  for  Government. 

SCHOOLS,  PUBLIC: 

Kindergartens,  in  1891,  729. 

Primary,  in   1891,  35,536,  with  88,292   teachers,  and 
5,274,200  pupils. 

Secondary,   in    1892,    437,   with    8,133   teachers,   and 
118,666  pupils. 

Colleges  and  Universities,  in   1892,  n,  with   1,446 
professors,  and  17,881  students. 
Normal,  in  1891,  141. 

Law,  in  1892,  11  in  Hungary,  with  815  students. 
Medical.  Art,  Forestry. 

Theological,  in  1892,  100,  with  4.075  students. 
Technological  (including  Industrial  and  Agricultu- 
ral), 1.735,  with  195,595  students. 
Military.  Nautical,  5. 

Blind.  Deaf  and  Dumb. 

(In  Vienna,    alone,   in    1S90,    there   were    285    public 
schools,  with  3,800  teachers,  and  140,000  pupils.) 
FOOD  PRODUCTION. 

State  productive  enterprise  is  yet  within  narrow  lines. 
IRRIGATION  extends  over  10  %  of  the  country.     It  is 
conducted  chiefly  by  neighborhood   co()perative  cor- 
porations. 

MEANS  PRODUCTION. 

SILK  CULTURE  is  exclusively  a  Government  en- 
terprise. In  1892,  in  Hungary,  76,397  families  were  en- 
gaged in  silk  culture.  The  product  of  cocoons  was 
970,248  kilograms  for  Hungary  ;  and  in  1891  for  Austria, 
1,506,524  kilograms. 


104 

LAW  AND  ORDER. 

AMBASSADORS.  APPRAISING  COMS. 

APPORTIONING  BOARDS. 

ASSAYING  COMS.  ASSESSING  BOARDS. 

AUDITING  BOARDS.       BANKRUPT  REGISTRY. 

CIVIL  SERVICE  BOARDS. 

CONSULS.  COPYRIGHT  BUR. 

COURTS  OF  JUSTICE  : 

Civil  and  Criminal,  in  Austria,  68  Provincial,  and 
916  County  or  District ;  and  in  Hungary,  65  Provincial 
and  384  County  or  District. 
Supreme  and  Cassation.      Circuit. 
Military.  Police. 

EXECUTIVE  DEPT.     Emperor  and  Cabinet  of  9  min- 
isters each  from  Austria  and  Hungary. 

EMMIGRATION  BUR. 

LEGISLATIVE  ASSEMBLIES  : 

National.  Austria  and  Hungary  each  have  their 
double  legislative  assemblies.  The  connecting  link  of 
the  two  nations  is  the  Imperial  Assembly  called  "  The 
Delegations''  It  consists  of  120  members,  ^^  chosen 
by  each  country.  In  each,  Yi  of  the  60  are  chosen  by 
the  Lipper  House,  and  73  by  the  Lower  House.  Dele- 
gates are  chosen  for  one  year.  Thus  each  act  affecting 
the  Empire  is  confirmed  by  5  assemblies. 
Provincial.  Municipal. 

MARRIAGES  are  civil.       MINISTERS,   FOREIGN. 

PARK  COMS.  PATENT  OFFICE. 

POLICE.  REGIS.  OF  DPZEDS. 

PRISONS:     In  Austria  during  1890,  total  inmates,  10,- 
560  ;  m  Hungary  during  1SS8,  total  inmates,  6,242. 
Police  Stations.  Jails. 

Reformatories.  Penitentiaries. 


105 

RELIEF  AND  CHARITIES. 

CHARITY  BURS.  DISPENSARIES. 

HOMES  FOR  ORPHANS.     In  1890,  1,192. 

HOSPITALS,  general,  epidemic,  infant,  insane. 

LIGHT  HOUSES.  PENSION  DEPT. 

POOR  HOUSES.  In  1S90  there  were  11,058  Institutes 
for  Relief.  297,915  persons  were  aided,  and  4,750,- 
349  fl.  distributed.  Besides  this,  1,822  Poor  Houses 
were  supported. 

SANITATION  AND  SAFETY. 

Sanitation  and  Safety  is  provided  for  in  many  ways  : 
by  Public  Baths,  Cemeteries,  Drinking  Founts  and 
Troughs,  Electric  and  Gas  Lighting,  Fire  Depts.,  For- 
estry, Fountains,  Garbage  Gathering,  Health  Officers, 
Parks,  Quarantine,  Sanitaries,  Sewerage  and  Drainage, 
Street  Cleaning,  Slaughter  Houses,  and  Water-works. 

BAHAMAS. 

(BRITISH    SINCE   1629.) 
AREA,  5,450  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  47,565,  in  1S91. 

This  is  a  highly  organized  little  colony  consisting  of 
12  chief  islands.  It  is  governed  by  a  Governor,  and 
Executive  Council  and  Legislative  Council  of  9  each, 
and  a  Legislative  Assembly  of  29.  It  has,  in  recent 
years,  become  very  prosperous  through  the  cultivation 
of  the  Sisal  plant  for  rope-making,  besides  its  productive- 
ness in  tropical  fruits.  Socially  it  has  all  the  machinery 
of  the  average  enlightened  community. 

BARBADOES. 

(BRITISH.) 

AREA,  166  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  182,306  in  1891. 

In  the  way  of  defense,  a  small  detachment  of  the  Brit- 
ish Army  is  stationed  on  these  islands.     Their  organiza- 


106 

tion  includes  Customs,  Internal  Revenue,  Tax  Collecting 
and  Treasury  depts.  There  are  482  mi.  of  public  roads. 
(Railroads — 24  mi.  in  1891, — are  under  private  owner- 
ship ;  but  are  subsidized  by  Government  to  the  amount 
of  i^6,ooo  annually.)  The  Postal  Service  is  well  man- 
aged. Harbors,  Wharves,  &c.,  are  public.  Of  Schools, 
in  1892,  there  were  202  Primary  with  11,765  pupils;  7 
Secondary  with  538  pupils;  and  i  College  with  21  stu- 
dents ;  and  a  Government  grant  for  that  year  of  £(),- 
340.  The  Church  of  England,  Wesleyan,  Moravian, 
and  Roman  Catholic,  received  aid  by  State  grant  in 
1891  to  the  amount  of  ^i  1,643.  The  Government  Exec- 
utive is  by  Governor  and  Council  appointed  by  the 
Crown.  There  are  the  usual  Courts  of  Justice,  a  Police 
Force  of  316  men,  3  grades  of  Prisons,  and  the  other 
legal  machinery  commonly  found  in  English  colonies. 


BASUTOLAND. 

(south  AFRICA.       BRITISH.) 

AREA,  10,293  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  219,902,  in  1891. 

This  is  a  new  country  being  introduced  into  civiliza- 
tion by  the  British  Government.  It  is  defended  by  a 
British  garrison,  and  British  money  is  in  circulation. 
There  are  many  Roads  in  good  condition.  Villages  are 
laid  out  in  Streets.  The  Postal  Service  is  enterprising 
and  extending.  State  Telegraph  line  connects  with  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  Primary  Schools  in  1891 
numbered  135.  There  are  also  some  Secondary,  Indus- 
trial, and  Technological  Schools.  In  1891,  the  Govern- 
ment grant  was  ^3,708.  Information  is  provided  by 
State  through  Census  and  Educational  Bureaus,  Sur- 
veys, &c.  The  Executive  is  a  Governor  and  Council 
of  Imperial  appointment.  There  are  several  Courts, 
Constabulary,  Prisons,  Juries,  Registrars  and  Assessing 
Boards,  besides  scores  of  other  Government  activities 
impossible  to  be  reported  in  new  countries. 


107 

BECHUANALAND. 

(south  AFRICA.       BRITISH.) 

AREA,  170,000  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  60,376  in  1S91. 

This  country  is  better  known  as  the  Land  of  the  Bush- 
men. They  are  a  mild,  inoffensive  and  susceptible  peo- 
ple. The  British  are  colonizing  the  country  and  bringing 
it  under  civilized  influence.  It  has  local  Government 
under  the  general  direction  of  the  Governor  of  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  who  is  High  Commissioner  for  South 
Africa.  Roads,  Schools,  and  many  socializing  influences 
are  being  undertaken. 

BERMUDAS. 

(BRITISH.) 

AREA,  20  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  15,290  in  1S92. 

These  islands  constitute  a  celebrated  winter  health 
resort.  The  British  Government  has  established  a  fine 
fort  at  St.  George,  and  maintains  a  small  garrison  there. 
British  money  forms  the  currency,  but  United  States 
money  is  common,  owing  to  the  large  number  of  visitors 
from  the  States.  The  Roads,  Harbors,  Postal  Service 
and  Telegraph  are  Government  property.  The  Tele- 
graph line  is  32  mi.  (15  of  which  are  cable),  and  connects 
with  the  cable  to  Halifax.  (A  Telephone  company  has 
300  mi.  of  wire  and  200  subscribers.)  In  1892  there  were 
47  Primary  Schools,  and  the  Government  grant  was 
^^1,650.  The  Executive  is  in  the  hands  of  a  Governor 
and  Council.  Besides  them  there  is  the  usual  Law  and 
Order  machinery. 

BELGIUM. 

AREA,  11,373  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  6,195,355,  in  1892. 

DEFENSE  OF  NATION. 

ARMY.  REGULAR,  in  1S93,  total,  47.225. 
Officers,  3,418.  Men  43,807, 


108 

MILITIA,  (Garde  Civique)  in  1^92,  44,184. 

Forts,  9.  Armories.  Chief  Arsenal  at  Antwerp. 

(Navy  not  reported.) 

FINANCE. 

BANK,  NATIONAL,  a  highly  socialized  institution. 
The  paid  up  capital  is  550,000,000  fr.  It  is  under  State 
control,  is  the  Cashier  of  the  State  and  conducts  the 
other  usual  banking  operations.     It  was  established  by 

law  in  1S50. 

STATE  SAVINGS  BANKS  in   1890,  609;  depositors, 

731,057  ;  deposits,  325,415,412  fr. 
SCHOOL  SAVINGS  BANKS.     In  1888,  4,798  Primary 

Schools  received  deposits  from  113,263  children,  and 

there  were  3,576,226  fr.  deposited  at  the  end  of  the 

year. 
COINAGE  only  by  State. 

CUSTOMS  DEPT.  INTER.  REV.  DEPT. 

TAX  COLLECTING  AND  TREASURY  DEPTS. 

DISTRIBUTION. 

ROADS,   in   1891,  5,639  mi.  reported. 

STREETS.  EXPRESS  SERVICE. 

RAILWAYS,  under  State  ownership,  in  1892,  2,018  mi. 
Cost  to  date  had  been  1,358,999,606  fr„  The  receipts 
for  1891  were  140,652,251  fr.;  expenses,  82,635,967  fr.; 
and  profits,  58,016,284  fr.  (Under  private  ownership 
there  w^ere  792  mi.)  Fares  and  freight  rates  have  been 
reduced  one  half,  while  wages  for  railroad  men  have 
doubled  since  the  government  took  chief  control. 
The  men  prefer  to  work  on  the  Government  roads. 

STATE  CANALS  AND  NAVIGABLE  RIVERS, 
1,010  mi.  in  1890.     The  canals  cost  25,000,000,000  fr'. 

HARBORS.  WHARVES  AND  PIERS. 

BRIDGES,  BRIDGE  ENGIN'RS  and  SURVEYORS. 


109 

POSTAL  SERVICE,  in  1892  there  were  .S29  offices  ;  re- 
ceipts, 17,513,873  fr.  ;  expenses,  9,954,020  fr.  ;  and 
profits,  7,559,853  fr. 
TELEGRAPH,  State  lines  in  1892,  4,617  mi.,  with  22,- 
739  mi.  of  wire.  Number  of  offices,  965  ;  receipts, 
3.445,599  fr.  ;  expenses,  4,535,^9-  fr. ;  and  deficit, 
1,089,593  fr. 

EDUCATION. 

State  activities  are  numerous  and  include 
AGRICULTURAL  BUR. 
ARCHAEOLOGICAL  RESEARCH. 
ART  GALLERIES.  BAXD  CONCERTS. 

BOTANIC  AND  ZOOLOGICAL  GARDENS. 
CENSUS  BUR. 
CHURCH.     There  is  no  State  Church,  yet  large  grants 

are  made  yearl}'  :  to  Roman  Catholics,  4,800,000  fr.  ; 

to  Protestants,  85,000  fr. ;  and  to  Jews,   16,300  fr. 
CLOCKS,  TOWN.  COAST  SURVEYS. 

EDUCATIONAL  BUR.      EXPOSITIONS,  &c. 
GEOGRAPHICAL  AND  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEYS. 
MONUMENTS  AND  STATUES. 
MUSEUMS.  READING  ROOMS. 

PRINTING  FOR  GOVERNMENT  BURS. 
SCHOOLS,  PUBLIC,  in  1892  : 

Kindergartens,  1,237,  with  124,960  pupils. 

Primary,  5,797,  with  640,845  pupils. 

Secondary,  127,  with  21,542  pupils. 

Colleges  and  Universities,  39,  with  11,069  students. 

Normal,  53,  with  2,694  students. 

Law,  Medical,  Theological,  included  in  Universities. 

Art,  2,  with  15,344  students. 

Music,  i.  Domestic  Economy. 

Industrial,  57,  with  16,694  students. 

Adult,  1,649,  with  70,945  pupils. 


110 

Technological.  Military. 

Expense,  in  1890,  for  Primary  education  alone,   28,- 

898,677  fr. 

FOOD  PRODUCTION, 

The  Government  uses  the  Canals  for  Irrigation.     No 
taxes  are  levied  on  agriculturists  for  water. 

I.AW  AXD  ORDER. 

APPORTIONING  BOARDS.   APPRAISING  COMS. 
ARBITRATION  COMS.  ASSAYING  COMS. 

ASSESSING  BOARDS.  AUDITING  BOARDS. 

BANKRUPT  REGISTRY.       CONSULS. 
COPYRIGHT  BUREAU.         CORONERS. 
COURTS  OF  JUSTICE  : 

Appeal,  3.  Criminal  or  Assize. 

Supreme  and  Cassation,  i. 

Circuit,  26.  Military. 

Commercial.  Justices  of  the  Peace,  215. 

EXECUTIVE  DEPT.      King,   7    Ministers,    and  Privy 

Council. 
JURY,  PETIT,  for  all  criminal  and  political  case.s. 
LEGISLATIVE  ASSEMBLIES  : 

National  :  Senate  of  69  members,  elected  for  <S  years  ; 

Deputies,  138,  elected  for  4  years  ; 

Provincial  (great  liberty).     Municipal. 
MARRIAGES.  MINISTERS,  FOREIGN. 

PARK  COMS.  PATENT  OFFICE. 

POLICE,  2,414;  cost  in   1894,  4,367,600  fr. 

PRISONS  : 

Jails,  inmates  in   1891,  3,513. 

Reformatories,  inmates  in  1891,   139. 

Penitentiaries,  inmates  in  189 1,  941. 
RAILROAD  COMS.        REGISTRARS  OF  DEPLDS. 


Ill 

RELIEF  AND  CHARITIES. 

CRARITY  BUREAUS,  received  in  donations  and  lega- 
cies in  1891,  2,660,387  fr. 

DISPENSARIES.  HOUSES  OF  REFUGE. 

HOMES  for  the  Aged,  Orphans,  and  Idiots. 

HOSPITALS,  General,  Epidemic,  Insane. 

LIGHT  HOUSES.  PENSION  DEPT. 

POOR  HOUSES.  Total  entries  in  1891,  18,253  ;  total 
cost,  1,148,603  fr. 

SANITATION  AND  SAFETY. 

Public  provision  includes  Baths,  Drinking  Founts 
and  Troughs,  Electric  and  Gas  Lighting,  Fire  and  P'or- 
estry  Depts.,  Fountains,  Garbage  Gathering,  Health  and 
Quarantine  Depts.,  Parks,  Sanitaries,  Sewerage  and 
Drainage,  Street  Cleaning  and  Sprinkling,  and  Water- 
works. 

BOLIVIA. 

AREA,  567,360  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  2,300,000  in  1^92. 

Bolivia  is  as  yet  little  more  than  a  barbarous  nation. 
It  has  a  form  of  republican  government  and  is  making 
considerable  progress  during  the  last  few  years.  Stand- 
ing Army  in  1892  numbered  1,450  men.  The  Military 
expense  for  the  year  was  1,829,158,  bolivianos.  The 
Roads  were  very  poor,  but  are  being  improved  and 
new  ones  undertaken.  (There  were  500  mi.  of  Railway, 
under  private  ownership.  The  Telegraph  is  limited  to 
the  Railways.)  There  were  S3  Post  Offices  in  189 1.  Pub- 
lic Education  is  beginning  to  receive  attention.  In  1890 
there  were  493  Primary  Schools,  with  649  teachers,  and 
24,244  pupils  ;  16  High  Schools,  with  91  teachers,  and 
2,126  pupils;  5  Universities  (so-called,)  with  83  instruc- 
tors, and  1,384  students.  Law,  Medical,  and  Theolo- 
gical departments  were  included.      In   188S  the  report 


112 

credits  the  State  with  43,900  bolivianos  for  Primary 
Education. 

The  Law  and  Order  machinery  is  considerable.  There 
are  the  President  and  his  Cabinet,  the  Congress  with  a 
Senate  of  16  (elected  for  4  years,)  and  a  Chamber  of 
64  Deputies  (elected  for  4  years),  i  Supreme  and  7  Cir- 
cuit Courts,  a  Police  Force,  Jails  and  Penitentiaries  ;  As- 
sessing, Auditing,  Registering  Depts.  ;  Diplomatic  and 
Consular  Service. 

The  Roman  Catholic  State  Church  assumes  the  chief 
direction  of  charities  of  all  kinds.  The  State  oversight 
of  Sanitary  arrangements  is  considerable,  though  far 
from  well-organized. 


BRAZIL. 

AREA,  3,209,878  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  14,000,000  in  1888. 

DEFENSE  OF  NATION.  Regular  Army  in  1891, 
30,477  (officers,  1,600 ;  men,  28,877).  Navy  :  Battle 
Ships,  2  ;  Port  Defense,  9  ;  Cruisers,  25  ;  Torpedo  Boats, 
8  ;  total  44.     Armories,  Forts,  &c. 

FINANCE.  (Banks  are  all  private  corporations.) 
The  Government  undertakes  Coinage  and  Note  Issue  ; 
there  is  a  Customs  and  Inter.  Rev.  Dept.,  also  for  Tax 
Collecting  and  Treasury. 

DISTRIBUTION.  Brazil  is  a  very  large  country, 
and  means  of  transit  are  as  yet  few.  There  were  700 
mi,  of  good  Roads  in  1890,  and  numerous  dirt  Turn- 
pikes, besides  mountain  Paths  and  city  Streets.  Express 
Service  is  largely  conducted  by  the  State. 

Railways  under  State  ownership  in  1893,  1,568  mi, 
There  were  besides,  1,815  mi.  of  sub-ventioned  railway. 
The  cost  of  these  to  the  State  up  to  December  31st,  1888 
had  been  195,636,000  milreis.  The  State  is  now  building 
other  lines  to  the  extent  of  3,815  mi.  (There  are  under 
private  ownership  3,250  mi.  besides.) 


113 

Of  Canals  and  Navigable  Rivers  there  are  24,300  mi. 
Harbors,  Wharves,  Bridges,  Bridge  Engineers,  and  Sur- 
veyors are  of  Government  provision. 

Postal  Service.  In  1890  there  were  2,733  offices.  The 
receipts  were  3,243,421  milreis  ;  expenses,  9,323,108  mil- 
reis  ;  and  deficit,  6,079,677  milreis. 

Telegraph.  In  1891,  8,620  mi.  under  State  ownership. 
Cost  to  date,  2,883,950  milreis.  There  were  212  offices. 
Receipts  for  1890,  2,042,755  milreis. 

EDUCATION  now  provided  for  by  Agricultural  Bu- 
reau, Botanic  Gardens,  Census  Bureau,  Coast  Surveys, 
Educational  Bureau,  Expositions,  Geographical  and 
Geographical  Surveys,  Libraries,  Museums,  Reading 
Rooms,  Monuments  and  Schools.  Of  the  latter,  there 
were,  in  1889,  7,500  Primary,  with  300,000  pupils;  Sec- 
ondary, in  most  towns ;  several  Colleges,  and  Normal 
Schools  ;  2  each  for  Law  and  Medicine  (1890)  ;  Theolo- 
gical;  Industrial;  8  Technological  with  575  students; 
4  Military  with  2,916  cadets  ;  and  i  Nautical,  with  2,777 
marines.     (In  1881,  84%  of  the  population  were  illiterate.) 

LAW  AND  ORDER.  The  Government  is  a  republic 
headed  by  President  and  Cabinet  ;  a  National  Congress 
of  ()2i  Senators  (elected  for  9  years),  and  202  Deputies 
(elected  for  3  years).  The  several  States  have  Govern- 
ments based  on  the  National  type.  There  is  an  elaborate 
legal  machinery  in  other  respects,  employing  thousands 
of  persons.  The  Courts  of  Justice  comprise  Police,  Dis- 
trict, Civil,  Criminal  and  Supreme.  There  were  15,000 
Police  in  1891  ;  and  Prison  provisions  in  the  form  of 
Police  Stations,  Jails,  and  Penitentiaries.  There  are 
Departments  for  Apportioning,  Appraising,  Assessing, 
Auditing,  Park  Supervision,  and  Registration  of  Bank- 
ruptcy, Deeds,  &c.  There  is  also  a  large  Consul  and 
Diplomatic  Corps  ;  Copyright,  and  Patent  offices. 

RELIEF  AND  CHARITY  is  but  meagrely  provided 
for.  The  greater  part  is  done  through  Roman  Catholic 
functionaries  under  State  sanction,  the  Church  itself  re- 


114 

ceiving  considerable  assistance  in  the  way  of  Government 
grants.  There  are  Charity  Bureaus,  Dispensaries,  Homes 
for  Orphans,  General  Hospitals^  Insane  Asylum,  Indian 
Agencies,  Light  Houses,  Pension  Department,  and  Poor 
Houses. 

SANITATION  AND  SAFETY  are  assisted  by  Pub- 
lic Drinking  Founts  and  Troughs,  Fire  Departments, 
Forestry,  Fountains,  Refuse  Gathering,  Health  Officers, 
Parks,  Quarantine,  Sanitaries,  Park  Seats,  Sewerage, 
Street  Cleaning,  and  Water-works. 


BULGARIA. 

AREA,  37,860  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  3,154,375  in  iSSS. 

DEFENSE  OF  NATION.  Regular  Army  of  38.800 
(officers,  1,162  ;  men,  37,638).  Militia,  139.200.  Navy 
of  13  Port  Defense  Ships. 

DISTRIBUTION.  The  State  is  surprisingly  active 
in  this  kind  of  provision.  Besides  Paths,  Roads,  Streets, 
and  Express  Service  management,  it  owned,  in  1892,  494 
km.  (or  307  mi.)  o{  Railway.  (Private  companies  owned 
312  km.)  Bridges,  Engineers,  Surveyors,  and  Markets 
are  maintained.  Postal  Service,  in  1892,  had  123  offices. 
Of  State  Telegraph  lines,  in  1891,  there  were  4,71°  Vxa., 
and  8,484  km,  of  wire  ;  with  147  offices. 

EDUCATION.  The  State  Church  is  Greek  Orthodox. 
There  were  in  1S90,  3,844  Primary  Schools,  with  171,983 
pupils;  Secondary  or  High  Schools,  in  the  chief  towns 
(including  4  for  Girls)  ;  i  College,  and  i  Military  School. 
The  State  grant  towards  School  expense  in  1890  was 
2,000,000  lev.  81  %  of  the  population  were  reported 
illiterate  in  1890.  There  is  a  public  Library  at  Sofia,  a 
Census  and  Educational  Bureaus. 

LAW  AND  ORDER.  The  Government  is  a  Con- 
stitutional Principality,  headed  by  the  Prince  and  his 
Ministers,  the  Parliament   (Sobranje)   of  350  members. 


115 

(elected  for  3  years).  To  these,  of  course,  are  added 
the  official  organization  necessary  for  Apportioning,  Ap- 
praising, Assessing,  Auditing,  Registering,  Arresting, 
Trying,  Imprisoning,  Tax  Collecting,  &c.  Then  there 
are  the  Consulate,  the  Customs  and  other  Departments. 
On  Relief  and  Sanitation  the  Census  is  defective. 


CANADA. 

(BRITISH.) 
AREA,  3,456,383  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  4,832,679  in  1892. 

DEFENSE  OF  NATION. 

REGULAR  ARMY,  in  1893,  1.079  (^^H  in  Military 
Schools  and  Colleges). 

MILITIA,  in  1893,  38,054.  Yearly  expense,  $1,279,- 
514.  There  are  Military  receipts  to  the  extent  of  326,- 
916.  (A  detachment  of  the  British  Army  is  al\va)'s  sta- 
tioned in  the  various  provinces.) 

FINANCE. 

POSTAL  SAVINGS  BANKS,  642  in  1892;  110,805 
d^ositors  ;  and  $22,298,401  deposits  at  the  end  of  the 
year.  ($24,153,193  at  end  of  1893.)  Expenses  of  man- 
agement in  1892  were  357,661.  The  rate  of  interest  al- 
lowed is  3^  %. 

The  Government  has  charge  of  the  Coinage  and  Note 
Issue,  the  Customs  and  Internal  Revenue  and  Tax  Col- 
lecting. 

DISTRIBUTION. 

ROADS,  6,000  mi.  for  mail  coaches,  in  1890  ;  besides 
a  vast  amount  of  Turnpike  in  the  country,  and  Streets 
in  towns  and  cities. 

STREET  LIGHTING,  und&r  municipal  ownership  in 
a  few  cities. 

(Street  Railways  are  chiefly  owned  by  private  com- 
panies, working  under  franchises  which  are  drawn  con- 


116 

spicuously  in  the  interests  of  the  cities.     In   1S93,  there 
were  13  electric  railways  having  7,909  motor  cars.) 
STAGE  COACHES.  EXPRESS  SERVICE. 

RAILWAYS.  In  1892,  under  Government  owner- 
ship, 1,397.5  mi.  The  cost  had  been  ^58,343,560;  re- 
ceipts for  1892  were  $3,^3^,393',  expenses,  ^3.478,597; 
and  deficit,  ^612,204.  (The  profit  for  1893,  on  the  Inter- 
colonial Railway  alone,  was  ;g2o,i82.)  (Under  private 
ownership  there  were  13,473  mi.;  having  cost  ^571,371,- 
314  ;  and  having  received  Government  aid  amounting  to 
;gi7i,2ii,82o.) 

CANALS  AND  NAVIGABLE  RIVERS,  2,700  mi. 
The  Canals  co^t  ;g59,ooo,ooo  ;  the  receipts  in  1888  were 
^^271, 722.     They  are  supported  entirely  for  public  benefit. 

HARBORS,  BRIDGES,  BRIDGE  ENGINEERS, 
SURVB:Y0RS,  and  MARKETS  are  public  provision. 

POSTAL  SERVICE.  In  1892,  there  were  8,288 
offices;  ;^3,542,6ii  receipts;  $4,205,985  expenses;  and 
^^663, 374  deficit.  ;$i2,825,7oi  were  exchanged  by  Postal 
Money  Orders. 

TELEGRAPH.  The  State  lines  covered  2,699  mi. 
in  1892.      (Private  lines,  29,142  mi.)  • 

EDUCATION. 

In  public  facilities  for  Education,  Canada  ranks  very 
high.  The  State  or  municipalities  maintain  Agricultural 
Bureaus,  Art  Galleries,  Botanic  and  Zoological  Gardens, 
Census  and  Educational  Bureaus,  Coast,  Geographical 
and  Geological  Surveys,  Exploring  Expeditions,  Expo- 
sitions and  Fairs,  Libraries,  Museums  and  Reading 
Rooms,  Meteorological  Bureaus  and  Observatories, 
Monuments  and  Statues,  Printing  Establishments,  and 
Schools.  Of  the  latter  there  were,  in  1 89 1 ,  Kindergartens 
(in  Ontario  alone  66,  with  160  teachers  and  6,375  pupils) ; 
Primary,  15,793,  with  23,809  teachers  and  997,473  pupils  ; 
Secondary  in  92  towns  and  cities;  Colleges,  35,  with 
6,675  students  ;  Normal ;  Art ;  Technological ;  Industrial ; 


117 

Military  ;  Blind  ;  and  Deaf  and  Dumb.     The  Expense  in 
1 89 1  for  Primary  schools  alone  was  $10,101,908. 

LAW  AND  ORDER. 

The  chief  Executive  is  the  Governor  General  and  his 
Council  (Imperial  appointment).  The  Parliament  con- 
sists of  80  Senators  (elected  for  life),  and  215  members 
of  the  House  of  Commons  (elected  for  5  years).  Each 
province  has  its  own  special  Legislative  machinery,  and 
so  the  towns  and  cities.  The  Government  activity  in  the 
way  of  Boards  for  Apportioning,  Appraising,  Assessing, 
Auditing,  Assaying,  Civil  Service  Examining,  Register- 
ing, Park,  Railroad  and  River  Oversight,  is  very  great. 
Besides,  there  are  the  Consulates,  Copyright  and  Patent 
Offices,  Coroners,  Immigration  Bureaus,  &c.  Then 
come  the  Civil,  Criminal,  Circuit,  Chancery,  and  Supreme 
Courts.  The  Juries  and  Jury  Commissioners,  the  Police, 
Constables,  and  Sheriffs;  the  Pounds,  Police  Stations, 
Jails,  Reformatories,  and  Penitentiaries. 

RELIEF  AND  CHARITIES. 

For  these  there  is  very  general  provision  in  the  way  of 
numerous  Bureaus,  Dispensaries,  Homes  (for  Aged,  Or- 
phans and  Idiots),  Hospitals  (General,  Epidemic,  Infant, 
Insane,  and  Lying-in),  House  of  Refuge,  Indian  Agencies, 
Life  Saving  Stations,  Light  Houses,  Nurseries,  Pension 
Agents,  and  Poor  Houses. 

SANITATION  AND  SAFETY. 

Baths,  Cemeteries,  Drinking  Founts  and  Troughs, 
Electric  and  Gas  Lighting,  Fountains,  Garbage  Gather- 
ing, Health  Officers,  Parks,  Quarantine,  Sanitaries,  Sew- 
erage, Street  Cleaning  and  Sprinkling,  and  Water  works. 
The  total  city  water-works  on  June  30,  1891,  was  95, 
supplying  102  cities  and  towns.  Their  estimated  cost, 
$26,131,390.  (<^/tliese,  59  (or  62.1  %)  were  under  public 
ownership;  and  36  (or  37.9  %)  under  private  ownership. 


118 


CAPE  OF  GOOD  HOPE. 

(south  AFRICA.       BRITISH.) 
AREA,  221,311  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  1,527,224  in  1S91. 

This  is  an  enterprising  British  colony.  In  addition  to 
the  British  troops  usually  stationed  here,  there  is  a  reg- 
ular colonial  force  of  765  men,  which  costs  yearly  ^137,- 
660.  Also  a  Militia,  in  1892,  of  5,369  men.  There  are 
still  vast  amounts  of  Public  Lands.  There  are  over  8, 000 
mi.  of  good  Roads,  in  addition  to  Turnpikes  and  Streets. 
In  1892  the  State  owned  2,252  mi.  of  Railway,  which  had 
cost  ;^i9, 321, 755.  The  receipts  for  the  year  were  £2,- 
248,980;  expenses,  ;^i, 370,904;  and  profits,  ;^87S,o76. 
The  State  first  assumed  ownership  in  Railways  in  1862. 
The  experience  has  proved  of  enormous  advantage  to  the 
people  individually  as  well  as  collectively.  (There  are 
192  mi.  under  private  ownership.)  The  Postal  Service 
in  1892  had  863  offices;  received  ;^252,i99;  expended 
;!^i76,32i  ;  and  had  a  net  profit  of  ;675,878.  In  1892  the 
State  owned  5,482  mi.  of  Telegraph;  310  offices;  re- 
ceived ;^7o,i94;  expended  ^75,878;  with  a  deficit  of 
;{^5,684.  This  was  exclusive  of  ;{^8o,926,  the  value  of 
Government  messages  sent  free.  The  State  owns  and 
controls  the  Harbors,  Wharves,  Bridges,  Markets  ;  and 
supports  a  corps  of  Bridge  Engineers  and  Surveyors. 

In  1891  there  were  1,809  public  Primary  Schools,  with 
2,094  teachers,  and  111,436  pupils;  there  were  besides, 
6  Colleges  with  237  students  ;  also  Normal,  Law,  Medical, 
Industrial,  and  Domestic  Pxonomy  Schools.  In  189 1  the 
State  expended  for  education,  ;^27i,o46.  In  1S92  there 
were  81  Public  Libraries,  besides  Museums,  Observator- 
ies, and  many  other  Educational  instrumentalities. 

Irrigation  Works  are  constructed  by  the  Government. 
It  also  owns  extensive  cachment  areas  worth  vast 
aniounts.     These  lands  its  leases. 


119 

The  Law  and  Order  machinery  is  headed  by  an  Imper- 
ially appointed  Governor  and  Executive  Council ;  and  a 
Parliament  consisting  of  a  Legislative  Council  with  22 
members  (elected  for  7  years),  and  a  House  of  Assembly 
with  76  members  (elected  for  5  years).  There  is  besides 
all  the  pharaphenalia  of  a  democratic  government. 

The  same  may  be  said  for  the  departments  of  Relief 
and  Charities,  and  Sanitation  and  Safety. 


CEYLON. 

(BRITISH.) 
AREA,  25,364  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  3,008,466  in  1891. 

Ceylon  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  and  enterprising 
British  colonies.  It  bears  a  yearly  expense  of  ^81,750 
toward  the  cost  of  the  Imperial  Government  garrison. 
Its  own  Militia  numbered  1,217  men  in  1S92,  and  cost 
99.543  rupees,  (i  rupee  is  nearly  50  cts.)  The  Postal 
Savings  Banks  at  the  end  of  1892  contained  deposits  of 
516,842  rupees.  The  State  owns  all  its  Railroads,  which 
in  1892  covered  230.5  mi.,  with  39  mi.  more  being  built. 
The  receipts  for  that  year  were  4,697,600  rupees.  The 
Harbor  dues  in  1892  were  768,292  rupees.  The  Postal 
Service  had  182  offices;  the  Telegraph  service  had  34 
additional  offices,  and  1,550  mi.  of  wire  in  1893,  To 
these  facilities  for  Distribution  must  be  added  the  Public 
Roads,  Streets,  Express  Service,  Markets,  Bridges,  Bridge 
Engineers,  Surveyors,  Wharves,  and  a  very  expensive 
Breakwater  at  Colombo. 

In  1892,  there  were  4,872  public  Primary  Schools,  with 
158,458  pupils  ;  12  Colleges;  Law;  Medical;  11  Techno- 
logical; 10  Industrial ;  i  Agricultural  with  10  branches  ; 
a  Woman's  Educational  Society  numbering  1,800  mem- 
bers ;  and  the  University  examinations  annually  held  in 
Ceylon  for  Camdridge  and  London  universities.  The 
General  Government  grant  towards  school  expenses  for 
1892  was  525,839  rupees. 


120 

In  the  way  of  Production  the  State  has  a  model  farm, 
which  was  inaugurated  by  Prince  Alfred.  It  owns  the 
most  extensive  Irrigation  works,  many  of  which  were 
built  between  400  B.  C.  and  1200  A.  D.  The  expense 
for  1S92  was  324,194  rupees.  Salt  works  are  a  Govern- 
ment monopoly,  the  net  profit  of  which  in  1891  was 
9,563,240  rupees.  The  State  also  owns  large  Foundry 
and  Iron  Works  at  Colombo.  Timber  is  exclusiveh' 
Government  property,  and  brings  in  a  large  revenue. 

The  Government,  like  that  of  other  British  colonies,  is 
headed  by  a  Governor  and  Council.  There  is  also  a 
Legislative  Council  of  18  members.  The  9  provinces 
have  a  Government  Agent  at  the  head.  There  are  13 
Local  Boards,  besides  native  villages,  and  3  town  muni- 
cipalities. The  courts  are  conducted  on  the  basis  of 
Roman-Dutch  law,  modified  by  English  Colonial  Ordi- 
nances. There  are  Supreme,  District,  Request,  and  Vil- 
lage Council  Courts.  In  addition  to  this,  must  be  remem- 
bered the  other  machinery  of  an  enterprising  colonial 
government. 


CHILL 

AREA,  293,970  sq.  miles.  POPULATION,  2,867,375  in  1892. 

In  1S91  the  Regular  Army  numbered  6,959,  and  there 
was  an  available  Militia  of  51,090.  The  Navy  was  com- 
posed of  I  Battle  Ship,  i  Port  Defense  Ship,  16  Cruisers 
and  9  Torpedo  Boats;  27  in  all. 

As  aids  to  Distribution  and  Transportation,  there  are 
1,600  ]\Iule  Paths  aggregating  1,700  mi.,  and  iS,6oo  mi. 
of  Roads.  The  State  owns  686  mi.  of  Railway  (1892), 
which  cost  58,827,349  pesos.  It  first  assumed  railway 
ownership  in  1865.  (There  are  under  private  companies, 
1,049  n^i-  The  first  Railroad  in  South  America  was  built 
in  Chili,  in  1850.)  The  Navigable  Rivers  amount  to 
2,800  mi.  Harbors,  Bridges,  Bridge  Engineers,  Sur-. 
veyors,  &c.,  are  maintained  by  State.     The  Postal  Ser- 


121 

vice  had  516  offices  in  1891.  In  1S92  the  State  Telegraph 
Lines  covered  8,000  mi.  and  had  304  offices.  (Private 
lines,  5,730  mi.  and  107  offices.)  The  State  Bonded 
Warehouses  in  Valparaiso  cost  over  ;$3,ooo,ooo. 

In  1S92,  there  were  1,174  Primary  Schools,  with  2,048 
teachers  and  95,456  pupils.  High  Schools  existed  in  all 
the  chief  towns ;  and  a  University,  with  5  faculties,  at 
Santiago.  Besides  these  there  were  Law,  Medical.  The- 
ological, Music,  Art,  Agricultural,  Industrial,  Military 
and  Naval  Schools.  In  1882  the  State  paid  for  schools, 
;^r,386,o22.  There  exist  Art  Galleries,  Libraries,  Muse- 
ums, Census  and  ^Educational  Bureaus,  &c. 

The  Government  is  a  republic,  with  a  President, 
Cabinet  of  5,  and  State  Council  of  11.  The  Congress 
has  2  Houses  :  a  Senate  of  43  (elected  for  6  years),  and 
a  Chamber  of  Deputies  of  126  (elected  for  3  years.) 

There  is  a  Supreme  Court  of  6  judges  ;  Police  (even 
in  the  rural  districts) ;  the  various  kinds  of  prisons  ;  &c. 


CHINA. 

AREA,  1,336,341  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  about  386,000,000. 

China,  socially  considered,  is  a  peculiar  nation.  It 
is  hard  to  compare  it  with  modern  civilizations.  How 
weak  are  these  ancient  social  structures  (even  when  they 
have  taken  on  considerable  that  belongs  to  modern 
times)  is  being  made  clear  in  the  present  Chino-Japa- 
nese  struggle.  Look  at  the  area  and  population  of  each  ! 
The  giant  but  awkward  form  of  China  is  rapidly  driven 
back  and  crushed  by  the  little  up-to-date  Japan.  It  is 
instructive  to  compare  the  highly-socialized  lEmpire  of 
the  Mikado  with  the  poor  and  loosely  managed  "  Celes- 
tial Kingdom,"  so  called.  (Seethe  far  more  numerous 
detailed  instances  of  socialization  under  Japan.)  China 
is  probably  the  largest  nation  on  the  globe,  regarded 
numerically.  It  is  also  the  oldest.  It  has  brought  its 
ancient  civilization  into  modern  <-imes.     The  people,  his- 


122 

torically,  have  been  ingenious  in  common  affairs;  but 
have  been  stagnant  in  the  social  realm,  and  the  State  still 
remains  in  the  spirit  of  ancient  days.  It  hcis  not  even 
arrived  at  the  stage  of  representative  government  in  any 
sense.  The  form  is  despotism,  yet  it  is  tempered  by  the 
age-long  spirit  of  parental  and  filial  piety,  which  imbues 
the  nation  from  highest  to  lowest. 

The  Army  is  supposed  to  number  over  650,000,  and 
the  Militia  about  1,200,000.  There  are  2  Battle  Ships, 
9  Port  Defense  Ships,  59  Cruisers  and  41  Torpedo  Boats; 
in  all,  III,     (And  yet  they  cannot  keep  the  Japs  out !) 

The  Roads  are  numerous,  but  abominably  kept. 
(Railways  have  been  attempted  several  times, by  com- 
panies, but  the  superstitions  of  the  people  are  so  strong 
that  they  have  not  succeeded.  Miles  of  track  have  been 
torn  up,  because  the  spikes  were  believed  to  be  '  driven 
through  the  spirit  Dragon's  back."  Some  tramways 
with  locomotives  have  been  extensively  used,  but  official 
policy  is  decidedly  against  the  introduction  of  any  sort 
of  iron  road.)  The  number  of  Navigable  Rivers  and 
Canals  is  very  great.  The  latter  date  from  400  B.  C. 
They  are  more  numerous  than  roads  in  our  most  popular 
states.  All  farms  and  villages  are  reached  by  them. 
Boats  are  sculled  or  driven  by  sail.  The  Grand  Canal 
from  Kwa  Chow  (near  Shanghai)  to  Pekin  is  650  mi. 
long.  China  is  the  only  country  in  the  world,  not  actually 
savage,  which  does  not  have  some  sort  of  government 
managed  Postal  Service.  The  Telegraph  has  been  vig- 
orously resisted,  although  lines  now  connect  the  chief 
cities,  and  these  with  the  Russian  frontier. 

Education  (of  the  Chinese  sort)  is  among  males  wide- 
spread and  highly  prized.  Competitive  examinations  for 
Civil  Service  Offices  and  for  Literary  Degrees  have  ex- 
isted since  the  8th  century.  Besides  the  Nobility,  there 
are  4  social  grades  :  ist,  Scholars  (Literati) ;  2nd,  Farm- 
ers ;  3rd,  Artisans  ;  4th,  Merchants  (traders).  The  study 
of  the  classics,  or  sacred  books,  constitutes  the  bulk  of 
education. 


123 

The  Emperor  is  the  "  Father  of  the  people,"  and 
Chinese  Government  is  summed  up  in  a  system  of  paren- 
tal and  filial  piety.  The  Nuy  Ko  (Privy  Council)  has  9 
Manchus  and  7  Chinamen.  There  are  6  administrative 
departments :  War,  Punishment,  Office,  Ceremonies, 
Revenue,  and  Works;  also  2  additional  boards  of  Music 
and  Censors.  These  are  headed  by  appointees  of  the 
Emperor.  Each  Province  is  presided  over  by  Viceroy 
and  Governor.  The  laws  were  all  laid  down  in  ancient 
times  by  the  wise  men  who  wrote  the  Classics.  This,  the 
Emperor,  Viceroys,  Governors,  &c.,  interpret  and  exe- 
cute. Prisons  are  few,  because  the  death  penalty  is 
widely  and  summarily  applied.  Punishment  by  torture 
is  common. 

Cemeteries  are  publicly  maintained  and  held  in  great 
reverence,  because  of  the  universal  ancestor  worship  of 
the  people. 

COCHIN  CHINA. 

(FRENCH.) 
AREA,  23,082  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  2,034,453  in  1S91. 

This  is  an  Empire  under  treaty  of  protection  and  alli- 
ance with  I'rance.  It  is,  as  a  whole,  considerably  less 
stupid  than  China,  and  manifests  some  susceptibility  to 
to  the  influences  of  a  modern  civilization.  There  is  a 
Frertch  garrison,  and  a  native  Militia  of  about  2,800  (in 
1891),  The  Government  owns  5  r  mi.  of  railway;  is  build- 
ing and  improving  the  Roads,  Streets,  Bridges,  and  Har- 
bors. A  State  Post-office  was  recently  introduced  by  the 
French;  and  there  were  in  1892  1,840  mi.  of  Telegraph, 
having  73  offices. 

In  1891  there  were  reported  628  Primary  Schools,  with 
1,^98  teachers,  and  25,397  pupils.  The  Government  is 
conducted  by  native  rulers  in  the  form  of  absolute  mon- 
archy, tempered  by  powerful  custom,  but  under  the 
guidance  and  protectorate  of  a  French  Governor  and 
Council. 


124 

COLOMBIA. 

AREA,  504,773  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  3,878,600  in  18S1. 

This  is  a  South  American  RepubHc  of  considerable 
importance.  It  had  a  standing  Army  of  5,500  in  1892. 
It  provides  its  own  money,  conducting  the  Coinage  by  2 
National  Mints.  Thereis  much  Land  and  other  property 
of  considerable  amount  in  the  hands  of  the  Government. 
A  vast  amount  of  Church  Land  was  confiscated  by  the 
New  Republic  which  came  in  in  1863.  The  Roman 
Catholic  Church  still  predominates,  but  was  disestab- 
lished at  that  time  from  being  a  State  Church.  The 
Government  owns  238  mi.  of  Railway,  and  great  enter- 
prise has  been  shown  both  by  the  National  and  State 
governments  in  pushing  forward  railway  undertakings, 
though  hampered  by  small  means  and  great  natural  diffi- 
culties. The  Navigable  Rivers  are  numerous  and  excel- 
lent. The  State  carries  on  the  Postal  Service,  and  owns 
6,016  mi.  of  Telegraph,  with  273  offices  (1892).  The 
Telegraph  system  has  been  greatly  annoyed  in  remote 
and  country  regions  by  thieves  stealing  the  wires  and  by 
monkeys  using  them  for  their  gymnastic  exercises. 

The  School  Reports  in  1893  mention  1,822  Primary, 
with  1 14,331  pupils  ;  34  Secondary  ;  9  Colleges,  with  2,683 
students;  i  University;  20  Normal,  with  587  students; 
Law;  Medical;  Mining;  Technological;  Industrial; 
Commercial ;  Nautical ;  &c.  The  National  Government 
grant  for  education  in  1SS8  was  ;^668,725.  To  this  was 
added  a  far  larger  portion  by  the  several  States. 

Salt  is  a  Government  monopoly.  The  revenue  in  i88t 
was  ^950,285.  Before  1876  all  Mines  were  a  monopoly 
of  the  Government. 

The  President  and  his  Cabinet  of  4  Secretaries,  (Home 
and  Foreign  Affairs,  Finance  and  Public  Works,  Treas 
ury  and  Credit,  War  and  Marine,)  head  the  Federal 
Government.  The  National  Congress  has  27  Senators 
(elected  for  6  years),  and  66  members  of  the  House  of 
Representatives  (elected  for  4  years).     There  are  9  State 


125 

governments,  similar  to  those  of  the  separate  states  of 
our  Union.  Towns  and  cities  have  their  own  Govern- 
ments and  local  Courts.  The  Supreme  Court  at  Bogota 
consists  of  a  President,  4  Judges  and  a  Procurator- 
General.  Minor  courts,  Police,  Prisons,  and  the  various 
Assessing  and  Registering  departments  fill  out  the  legal 
machinery.  Charities  and  Sanitary  provisions  are,  num- 
erous. 


CONGO  INDEPENDENT  STATE. 

AREA,  about  900,000  sq.  mi. 
POPULATION,  about  14,000,000  in  1891. 

Congo  is  a  Central  West  African  region,  lately  organ- 
ized by  PLuropean  powers.  It  is  destined  to  be  an  im- 
portant country  ere  long.  It  has  sprung  up  in  a  day,  as 
it  were.  Books  10  years  old  have  no  mention  of  it,  but 
already  there  is  a  social  organization  of  considerable  de- 
velopment. A  standing  Armed  Force  of  3,600  men, 
about  80  of  whom  are  officers ;  a  Postal  Service  with  10 
ofifices;  25  mi.  of  Railway;  4  Military  and  several' Pri- 
mary Schools,  are  among  the  indications  of  active  socio- 
logical and  commercial  interest. 


COREA. 

AREA,  82,000  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  alxnit  10,500,000. 

As  proven  by  the  present  Chino-Japanese  dispute, 
Corea  is  one  of  the  most  loosely  organized  and  poorly 
managed  governments  of  the  world.  There  is  a  stated 
Regular  Army  of  5,000,  and  a  considerable  number  of 
walled  towns.  The  people  do  their  trading  largely  by 
barter,  only  i  small  piece  of  copper  coin  being  prevalent. 
Wheeled  vehicles  are  unknown,  hence  Roads  are  deplor- 
able. Transport  is  carried  on  by  porters,  pack-horses, 
oxen,  and  boats  on  the  many  navigable  streams.     The 


126 

Bridges  are  few,  and  of  the  most  primitive  sort.  The 
King  maintains  a  sort  of  Postal  system  on  the  principal 
highways  by  means  of  mounted  couriers.  There  are 
Telegraph  lines  from  the  capitol  to  the  Chinese  and  Rus- 
sian frontiers.  Confucianism  is  the  established  creed, 
and  the  Libraries  consist  entirely  of  the  Classics  and 
works  based  on  them.  Books  are  almost  worshipped. 
There  is  every  indication  of  the  former  greatness  of  this 
people.  They  are  the  remnants  of  a  decayed  civilization. 
Education  is  held  in  similiarly  high  esteem  to  that  of 
China.  Civil  Service  Examination  is  the  universal  rule  ; 
but  all  the  Schools  are  of  classical  tendency  and  are  full 
of  effete  and  superstitious  doctrines.  Hence  the  various 
branches  of  Education,  Science,  Law,  Medicine,  &c., 
must  not  be  thought  of  in  our  European  or  Western 
sense.  Both  Corea  and  China  are  really  barbarous  na- 
tions, embodying  a  vast  am.ount  of  social  ceremonialism, 
and  tempered  by  the  strongest  pietistic  atavism. 

The  King  and  his  3  Minister  Councilors  are  the  head 
of  the  Government.  Each  province  has  its  Governor, 
and  each  of  the  322  districts  is  under  a  separate  Man- 
darin. These  posts  are  theoretically  open  to  all,  bu( 
are  actually  monopolized  by  the  nobles.  There  are  no 
Legislative  departments  proper.  The  King  is  absolute 
monarch  in  his  own  dominion.  He  receives  divine 
honors.  Horsemen  dismount  as  they  pass  the  palace, 
and  subjects  prostrate  themselves  in  the  presence  cham- 
ber. Till  1894,  he  has  been  a  vassal  to  China.  During 
this  century  the  nobles  have  mingled  more  in  politics 
and  made  certain  inroads  on  the  Royal  prerogatives. 

Women  are  held  in  such  low  estimation  that  they  re- 
ceive no  schooling,  are  not  morally  responsible  for  their 
actions,  and  have  no  political  or  social  influence.  Among 
the  upper  classes  they  are  kept  in  a  state  of  seclusion. 
Marriages  are  arranged  by  the  heads  of  families,  the 
parties  married  never  having  seen  each  other  oftentimes. 
Men  and  women  do  not  associate  much.  Concubinage 
is  common,  but  not  polygamy. 


127 

There  is  a  sort  of  Supreme  Court  with  6  judges,  who 
are  also  Executive  officers,  having  charge  of  census, 
taxes,  mint,  religious  ceremonies,  war,  criminal  court, 
public  works,  commerce,  &c.  Judgment  is  too  often 
followed  by  death  to  make  prisons  of  much  use. 

As  to  Relief,  beyond  a  few  Light  Houses  and  Pension 
dependency,  this  division  of  a  socialized  nation  is  hardly 
represented.  There  is  always  a  large  number  of  pen- 
sioners on  the  Royal  bounty,  as  the  King  is  expected  to 
provide  for  his  realm  as  a  father.  The  poverty  of  the 
common  people  is  of  the  most  lamentable  character. 
Their  houses  are  only  from  lo  to  12  sq.  ft.  The  bare 
earth  forms  the  floor.  There  are  no  chairs,  and  nothing 
worthy  of  being  called  a  bed.  They  have  straw  sandals 
for  shoes  with  stockings  underneath.  Their  apparel  is 
of  rough  cotton  cloth. 


COSTA  RICA. 

AREA,  23,000  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  243,205  in  1S92, 

This  a  Central  American  republic,  about  twice  the 
size  of  Belgium.  There  is  a  Standing  Armed  Force  of 
600  men  ;  and  a  Militia  in  1S92  of  37,273.  The  Public 
Land  is  being  sold  off,  as  in  the  United  States.  It  forms 
a  temporary  revenue.  The  Mule  Tracks  and  Roads  are 
few  and  rugged.  Tbi  Government  attempted  to  build 
an  Inter-Oceanic  Railway  in  1S71  ;  but  the  insurrectious 
condition  of  society  caused  the  work  to  be  dropped  in 
1873.  (It  has  since  been  taken  up  by  private  companies  ; 
and  there  are  under  private  ownership  161  miles  of  rail- 
way.) The  Government  conducts  the  Postal  Service. 
In  1893  there  were  50  offices.  It  also  has  630  mi.  of 
Telegraph  line,  with  43  offices.  In  1S92  there  were  267 
Primary  Schools  with  11,472  pupils.  In  1S91,  the  State 
expended  on  education  546,035  pesos.  There  are  some 
Secondary,  Collegiate,  Law,  Medical,  and  Industrial 
Schools.     The  State   Church  is   Roman   Catholic.     At 


128 

the  head  of  the  Government  is  a  President,  2  Vice-Presi- 
dents, and  4  Ministers.  There  is  but  one  Legislative 
Assembly  consisting  of  a  Chamber  of  Representatives 
with  26  members  (elected  for  4  years).  The  usual  Law 
and  Order  machinery  exists.  In  Production,  the  Gov- 
ernment has  a  monopoly  in  Spirits  and  Tobacco. 


CUBA. 

(SPANISH.) 

AREA,  41,655  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  1,631,687  in  1S90. 

The  Cuban  people  have  struggled  long  and  heroically 
for  freedom.  They  carried  on  a  bloody  war  for  indepen- 
dence between  1870  and  1878.  This  cost  the  bigoted 
Spanish  government  over  200,000  men.  It  is  not  the 
fault  of  the  freedom-loving  people  of  that  beautiful  island 
that  it  cannot  boast  one  single  instance  of  real  advance- 
ment. It  is  filled  with  the  usual  machinery  of  paternal- 
istic tyrrany.  It  is  over-ridden  by  Spanish  officers  and 
Spanish  law.  Everything  is  taxed  that  can  be,  and  after 
that  the  people  are  seduced  by  a  Royal  Lottery  which 
netted  the  government  ^3,334,820  in  1884.  And  it  still 
takes  a  force  of  12  Spanish  war  vessels  and  an  army  of 
22,866  men  to  keep  it  Spanish.  In  that  little  isle  are 
5,076  Police.  And  every  year  the  debt  increases,  and 
the  people  are  staggering  under  it.  Under  the  new 
arrangement  they  have  their  representatives  in  the 
Spanish  Parliament,  but  they  can  carry  no  measure. 
It  is  but  a  farcical  representation.  The  public  land  is 
being  sold  for  revenue.  The  Finances  are  managed  by 
the  Bank  of  Spain.  (The  Railways,  about  1,000  mi.,  are 
under  private  ownership.  So  too  the  Telegraph.)  The 
Spanish  government  tolerates  no  religion  but  the  Roman 
Catholic.  P^ducation  is  in  a  very  backward  state. 
Not  over  i-io  of  the  children  of  free  parents  received 
any  kind  of  schooling  in  1877.  In  1890,  this  had  some- 
what improved,  although  the  figures  arc  not  obtainable. 


129 

The  Government  is  reported  to  have  spent  $553,335. 
There  is  a  University  at  Habana  with  30  teachers.  There 
are  two  other  Colleges.  The  Government  is  peculiar. 
At  the  head  is  the  Governor  Captain-General  from 
Spain.  He  has  despotic  authority  and  is  responsible 
only  to  the  Spanish  sovereign.  He  is  supreme  head 
of  the  Civil,  Military,  and  Ecclesiastical  jurisdictions. 
Under  him  and  responsible  to  him  are  the  Governors 
of  departments,  and  under  these  are  Lieutenant  Gov- 
erns. The  Legislative  representatives  are  in  the  Span- 
ish Cortes.  There  is  an  apparent  Town  Council  in  each 
city.  This  is  the  only  sort  of  socialized  assembly  in  the 
country.  There  are  129  of  these  municipalities;  but 
both  these  and  the  provincial  assemblies  can  be  proro- 
gued at  the  will  of  the  Captain-General. 


CURACAO. 

(west  indies,    dutch.) 

AREA,  210,000  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  26,584  in  1S91. 

This  is  an  old-fashioned  Dutch  colony  of  long  stand- 
ing and  slow  progress.  It  is  governed  by  a  Dutch 
Stadtholder  and  Council.  It  is  an  organized  commu- 
nity having  the  usual  legal  machinery.  State  Postoffice, 
Municipal  Works,  Militia,  &c. 

CYPRUS. 

(BRITISH.) 

AREA,  3,584  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  209,291  in  1891. 

This  is  an  Eastern  Mediterranean  island  that  has  been 
the  seat  of  a  most  ancient  Greek  civilization.  It  has  had 
a  varied  history.  After  the  hey-day  of  Greek  influence, 
St.  Paul  introduced  Christianity  upon  the  island,  and  so 
rapidly  did  it  flourish  that  very  soon  there  were  13  bish- 
oprics established  there.      Under  the  Venetians  (after 


130 

1487),  the  island  is  said  to  have  had  1,000,000  inhabi- 
tants. It  has  experienced  its  long  periods  of  stagnation. 
Under  British  influence  in  recent  years  it  shows  signs 
of  renewed  thrift.  There  is  no  public  debt,  and  taxes 
are  taken  "in  kind."  It  is  the  seat  of  an  important 
Brirish  garrison.  There  are  400  miles  of  good  Roads. 
The  Postofifice,  Harbors,  Wharves,  Bridges,  Markets,  &c., 
are  under  State  management.  (In  1892  private  com- 
panies had  240  Telegraph  offices.  They  connected  with 
Alexandria  and  Syria.)  In  1892  there  were  334 Primary 
Schools  (of  which  226  were  Christian  and  108  Moslem) 
with  14,326  pupils.  High  Schools  exist  in  the  chief 
towns.  All  schools  are  inspected  by  Government  offi- 
cers. The  Government  grant  for  1892  was  ;{J"3,2io  ;  and 
the  income  from  fees,  endowments,  &c.,  was  £C^,377. 
Among  other  educational  works  the  Government  has 
undertaken  Archaeological  Research  for  remains  of  the 
ancient  Greek  city  of  Citium  and  others.  Many  rich 
and  interesting  facts  have  been  discovered.  The  chief 
executive  is  a  High  Commissioner  of  British  appoint- 
ment and  his  Council  of  4  members.  There  is  a  national 
Legislative  Council  of  18,  6  of  whom  are  British  office- 
holders and  12  are  elected  by  voters.  The  six  Provin- 
cial districts  have  autonomous  government.  There  was 
a  police  force  of  670  in  1892  ;  6  District  Courts  of  Civil 
and  6  others  of  Criminal  jurisdiction;  6  Magisterial; 
and  5  Village  ;  and  i  Supreme  Court.  There  is  a  large 
amount  of  crime  in  proportion  to  the  population.  The 
people  are  much  given  to  litigation.  The  usual  other 
machinery  of  British  colonies  is  to  be  found. 


DENMARK. 

AREA,  14,553  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  2,185,159  in  1890. 

DEFENSE  OF  NATION.  Denmark  is  an  interest- 
ing, peace-loving,  and  highly  socialized  nation.  It  has 
a  considerable  standing  army  which  it  rarely  uses.     In 


131 

1892  there  were  42,950  men  (1,206  of  whom  were  offi- 
cers). The  Government  expense  for  1893-4  is  10,631,- 
950  kroner.  (A  kroner  is  about  27  cents.)  The  MiHtia 
numbered  34,750.  There  were  several  Forts.  In  1892 
the  Navy  had  5,379  men  (417  being  officers)  ;  i  Battle 
Ship,  6  Port  Defense  Ships,  23  Cruisers,  12  Torpedo  Boats, 
making  a  total  of  42  War  Vessels.  The  naval  expense 
for  1893-4  was  6,690,726  kr.  There  is  a  naval  reserve  of 
7,197- 

FINANCE.  The  National  Bank  in  1893  had  assets 
amounting  to  132,052,245  kr.  It  is  the  State  cashier  ; 
and  is  a  highly  socialized  institution.  There  are  de- 
partments for  Coinage,  Note  Issue,  Customs,  Internal 
Revenue,  Tax  Collecting,  and  Government  Lotteries. 
The  total  Government  expenditure  in  1893-4  was  54,- 
228,658  kr.  The  Public  Debt  in  1891  was  186,610,993 
kr.  (The  rate  is  3J3  and  4  %).  In  Land  holdings,  Den- 
mark is  greatly  subdivided.  The  law  forbids  aggrega- 
tions and  encourages  parcelling.  PZncroachment  upon 
the  old  estates  of  the  nobles  is  continually  going  on. 

DISTRIBUTION.  There  were  2,000  mi.  of  Roads  in 
1890.  The  Government  owned,  in  1892,  992  mi.  of  Rail- 
way. (It  began  the  purchase  and  management  of  Rail- 
ways in  1S80.)  Their  cost  to  the  end  of  1890  had  been 
164,141,474  kr.  (In  addition  to  this  there  were  297  mi. 
of  privately  owned  railway.)  There  are  8  mi.  of  Canal 
and  90  of  Navigable  Rivers  managed  by  the  State  ;  so 
too  are  the  Harbors,  Wharves,  Bridges,  Telephones, 
Markets  and  Express  Service.  The  number  of  Post- 
offi.ces  in  1892  was  803.  The  State  owned,  in  1891,  2,816 
mi.  of  Telegraph,  and  had  168  offices.  (858  mi.  with 
207  offices  were  owned  by  the  private  railroads.) 

EDUCATION.  "The  Educational  Institutions  of 
Denmark  have  reached  a  high  degree  of  perfection. 
All  schools,  both  Grammar  and  others,  have  been  put 
in  a  state  of  independence  on  the  University  of  Copen- 
hagen, and  under  its  control,  while  the  University  itself 
is   particularly  well-managed."     Education   is    compul- 


132 

sory,  and  elementary  education  is  widely  diffused.  There 
were  in  1892,  2,940  Primary  Schools,  with  231,940  pupils  ; 
81  Secondary  Schools  (and  about  67  Peasant  High 
Schools  in  addition  to  these,  attended  by  men  in  win- 
ters and  women  in  summers)  ;  i  University  with  40  in- 
structors and  1300  students;  5  Normal  Schools ;  i  Art 
School,  with  7  instructors  ;  122  Technological  ;  besides 
Law,  Medical,  Theological,  Industrial,  Blind,  Deaf  and 
Dumb,  &c.  The  State  paid  toward  the  support  of  Wor- 
ship and  Instruction  in  1894,  3,625,449  kr.  The  Nation- 
al Church  is  Lutheran.  Tt  was  established  in  1536.  In 
1S90  only  1.5  %  of  the  population  did  not  belong  to  it. 
In  1885  there  were  1,353  clergymen,  i  Metropolitan  and 
6  other  Bishops.  All  sects  have  the  fullest  toleration. 
The  State  provides  Agricultural,  Census,  Educational 
and  Meteorological  Bureaus  ;  for  Archaeological,  Ethno- 
logical, and  Theological  Research  ;  for  Coast,  Exploring, 
Geographical,  and  Geological  Surveys  ;  for  Art  Galleries, 
Botanic  Gardens,  Expositions,  Libraries,  Museums,  Ob- 
servatories, and  Reading  Rooms. 

MEANS  PRODUCTION.  The  State  builds  Cars, 
has  Drydocks,  Foundries,  and  Locomotive  Works. 
Since  1779  the  Porcelain  factory  at  Copenhagen  has 
been  in  the  hands  of  the  State.  Its  wares  are  original 
and  of  high  order. 

LAW  AND  ORDER.  The  King,  the  Crown  Prince, 
and  the  8  Ministers  of  Departments  constitute  the  Stats- 
raadt.  The  Landthing  (Senate)  has  66  members  (12  no- 
minated by  the  Crown  for  life,  and  54  elected  by  indirect 
universal  suffrage  for  8  years).  The  Folkething  (House 
of  Commons)  has  102  members  (elected  for  3  years). 
Members  of  both  houses  get  3  rixdalers  (;$i.66)  daily, 
during  sessions  of  the  Rigsdag  (Parliament),  besides  ex- 
penses to  and  from  the  capitol.  There  are  7  Provinces, 
many  Municipalities,  and  1,068  Parishes.  The  lowest 
Courts  are  those  by  District  and  Town  Magistrates, 
above  these  are  Second  Instance  Courts  with  9  judges 
at  Viborg  and  1 7  at  Copenhagen  ;  and  a  Supreme  Court 


133 

(Hojisteret)  for  final  appeal  with  one  chief  justice,  12 
puisne,  and  11  special  judges,  sitting  at  Copenhagen. 
To  these  must  be  added  the  Police,  the  Prisons,  the 
Consulates,  the  Registries,  and  the  Assessing  and  Col- 
lecting Departments. 

In  organized  Relief  and  Charity  and  in  Sanitary  and 
Safety  means  under  public  control,  Denmark  equals  the 
best. 

DUTCH  EAST  INDIES. 

AREA,  719,674  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  32,000,000. 

The  Dutch  possessions  in  the  East  Indies  include  Java, 
Madura,  Celebes,  Sumatra,  Molucca,  Timor,  and  a  por- 
tion of  New  Guinea.  The  leading  settlements  are  in 
Java.  In  Java  and  Madura  alone  the  population  num- 
bers about  21,500,000. 

The  Regular  Army  maintained  in  1891  was  34,788 
(officers,  1,385).  The  Navy  numbered  2,572  men,  and 
23  War  Vessels. 

DISTRIBUTION.  The  greater  part  of  the  S50  mi. 
of  Railway  in  1891  were  owned  by  the  State.  The 
receipts  from  State  railways  in  that  year  were  8,400,500 
guilders  (and  3,124,574  guilders  on  private  railways). 
The  Postal  Service  in  1891  had  300  offices;  the  Tele- 
graph, 100  offices  and  4,247  mi.  of  line;  and  the  Tele- 
phone, 27  offices.  The  State  owns  and  manages  the 
Roads,  Streets,  Express  Service,  Harbors,  Wharves, 
Bridges  and  Markets. 

EDUCATION.  The  Public  Primary  Schools  in  1S91 
numbered  19,035,  with  375,266  pupils.  There  were  7 
Secondary  Schools  ;  6  Normal  Schools,  with  3;^  instruc- 
tors and  224  students;  Domestic  Economy,  Industrial, 
Military,  and  other  kinds.  For  all,  in  1891,  the  Govern- 
ment grants  were  2,876,473  guilders.  The  State  owns  3 
Printing  offices  in  Java.  It  conducts  Archaeological 
Research    of    considerable    extent    in   seeking   for   the 


134 

character  of  the  former  civilizations.  Java  is  rich  in 
antiquities  of  the  early  Hindoo  conquerors.  There  are 
Census,  Educational  and  other  Bureaus. 

PRODUCTION.  In  the  matter  of  Food  Production, 
the  Government  in  Java  has  entered  upon  productive 
enterprises  probably  more  than  in  any  other  country  in 
the  world. 

Since  iSi6  no  la7id  in  Java  has  been  alienated.  Cer- 
tain tracts  are  left  free  for  the  natives.  Some  lands  were 
sold  to  European  (1,946,455  acres)  and  foreign  Orientals 
(798,628  acres)  before  1816.  All  the  rest  belongs  to  the 
State  (-9,797,637  acres).  By  the  Agrarian  law  of  1S70, 
these  lands  were  opened  to  private  industry  on  hereditary 
lease  (emphyteusis)  for  75  years,  or  are  worked  by  the 
Government.  In  1893  the  receipts  from  leased  lands 
were  i  7,982,000  guilders.  The  6"^^^  product  from  Gov- 
ernment lands  in  1891  was  430,206  picols  (i  picol  being 
133  y'i  pounds),  and  receipts  therefrom  11,815,872  guild- 
ers. Salt  production  is  a  Government  monopoly,  and 
the  receipts  therefrom  in  1893  were  8,370,000  guilders. 
^?/^rtr  plantations  to  the  extent  of  4,761  acres  were  owned 
and  worked  by  the  Government  in  1891.  Tea  and  To- 
bacco were  also  raised  in  great  quantities  on  Government 
lands.  There  were,  m  1891,  8  State  Cmchona  planta- 
tions, producing  286,101  picols,  and  receipts,  138,600 
guilders.  Opinm  is*  a  Government  monopoly,  and  the 
receipts  therefrom  in  1893  reached  17,779,000  guilders. 
Indigo  is  a  Government  enterprise.  The  Tin  Mines 
under  State  ownership  employed,  in  1892,  18,040  men, 
and  produced  199,869  picols,  bringing  in  receipts  of 
6,051,291  guilders.  Besides  these,  the  State  engages 
in  Car  and  Locomotive  building,  has  Drydocks,  Found- 
ries, and  an  Engineering  Department. 

LAW  AND  ORDER.  At  the  head  of  the  Govern- 
ment is  the  Dutch-Stadtholder  (Governor-General)  and 
his  Council  of  5.  There  are  22  Provinces  in  Java  and 
Madura,  each  having   a   considerable    autonomy.     The 


135 

Courts  include  District,  High,  Circuit,  Magisterial,  and 
Ecclesiastical.  In  1890  there  were  303  prisons  with  a 
total  of  26,485  inmates.  It  would  be  impossible  here  to 
enumerate  the  numerous  other  socialized  institutions  of 
this  far-away,  active,  and  surprisingly  advanced  people  ; 
some  idea  of  which  may  be  gained  from  the  statement 
that  in  1S94  the  Government  aid  to  Orphan  Homes  of 
Protestant  and  Roman  Catholic  founding  was  96,300 
guilders. 

ECUADOR. 

AREA,  118,630  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  1,271,861. 

The  Regular  Army  has  about  3,340;  the  Militia  some 
30,000  ;  and  the  Navy,  128  men  on  6  poor  vessels. 

There  are  vast  tracts  of  Public  Lands  inconceivably 
rich  in  timbers  of  many  and  choice  varieties.  The  Mule 
Paths  are  numerous  but  in  poor  condition.  There  is  one 
good  Road  of  1 1 5  miles,  and  about  200  miles  of  fair  Cart 
Road.  The  difficulties  occasioned  by  mountains  and 
torrents  are  very  great.  The  first  carriage  was  brought 
to  Quito  in  1859,  and  the  owner  was  taxed  for  his  innova- 
tion. The  State  owned  63  mi.  of  Railway  in  1891  ;  and 
1,073  n^i-  of  Telegraph.  The  Post  office  yields  a  net 
revenue  of  over  ;^ioo,ooo. 

Education  is  backward.  In  1891  there  were  1,088 
Primary  Schools,  with  1,498  teachers,  and  68,380  pupils; 
35  Secondary;  12  Colleges,  with  350  students;  Normal  ; 
Theological ;  Technological ;  and  Military.  The  State 
expense  in  1890  was  j^i 76,325.  The  State  church  is 
Roman  Catholic.  No  others  tolerated.  Even  the  oath 
of  a  Protestant  has  no  value  in  a  "Court  of  Justice." 
The  monkish  orders  of  the  Middle  Ages  in  Europe  still 
flourish  in  Ecuador. 

In  the  way  of  Production,  Salt  is  a  monopoly  of  the 
State.  The  revenue  therefrom  is  something  over  $400,- 
000  annually.      Gjinpowder  is  a  Government  monopoly, 


136 

yielding  ^40,000  to  ^50,000  per  year.  The  Government 
has  been  to  considerable  expense  in  training  persons  to 
superintend  the  introduction  of  the  Indigo  industry. 

The  Government  is  Republic ;  has  a  President  and 
Cabinet  of  6 ;  a  National  Congress  with  a  Senate  of  33 
members  (elected  for  4  years),  and  a  Chamber  of  Deputies 
of  33  members  (elected  for  2  years).  There  are  1 1  Prov- 
inces and  2  cities  (Quito  and  Guayaquil),  each  having 
Governors.  The  Courts  are  Municipal,  Provincial,  Up- 
per of  3,  and  Supreme  of  i  (at  Quito).  The  various  other 
departments  may  be  readily  assumed. 

EGYPT. 

(TURKISH,  WITH   BRITISH   INFLUENCE.) 
AREA,  400,000  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  6,817,265  in  1882. 

Egypt  was  for  many  centuries  one  of  the  darkest  coun- 
tries, from  a  social  point  of  view.  Since  about  1840  it 
has  made  very  rapid  advancement,  and  promises  soon  to 
show  a  type  of  civilization  of  high  order. 

The  Regular  Army  in  1892  comprised  about  13,000 
men  ;  and  the  Militia  about  20,000.  The  Navy  has  6  Port 
Defense  Ships  and  4  Cruisers.  The  Roads,  Streets, 
Bridges,  and  Markets  are  public  property,  so  too  the 
Harbors.  An  extensive  Breakwater  has  been  made  at 
Alexandria,  and  great  works  have  been  constructed  at 
the  Suez  Canal  and  elsewhere.  The  Canal  is  87  mi.  long ; 
and  its  receipts  in  1892  were  41,728,543  fr.  Besides  this, 
there  exists  some  400  to  500  mi.  of  ancient  Canals,  not 
in  very  good  repair,  but  being  improved.  The  River 
Nile,  from  time  immemorial  the  chief  natural  feature, 
forms  a  great  water-way  the  length  of  the  land.  The 
Railways  are  all  under  State  ownership.  The  Govern- 
ment first  assumed  management  in  1856.  In  1892  there 
were  1,225  mi.,  and  30  more  were  being  built.  The  re- 
ceipts were  1,680,164  Egyptian  pounds;  expenses,  728,- 
242  ;  and  profits,  95 1,922.     The  Postal  Service  was  bought 


137 

by  the  Government  from  private  hands  in  1S65,  and  was 
placed  under  English  officials.  There  were  in  1892 
offices  in  nearly  one  hundred  towns.  The  Money  Orders 
and  Registered  Letters  covered  values  amounting  to 
14,551,000  Egyptian  pounds.  The  Telegraph  is  owned 
by  the  State,  and  there  were  1,922  mi.  of  line  in  1S92, 
and  6,763  mi.  of  wire.  It  is  managed  by  English  officials, 
thus  insuring  thoroughness. 

Education  is  advancing  rapidly,  although  among  the 
natives  it  is  still  largely  confined  to  the  reading  of  the 
Koran.  In  18S7  there  w'ere  6,656  Primary  .Schools,  with 
7,244  teachers  and  about  200,000  pupils.  The  Secondary 
Schools  numbered  21,  with  2,431  pupils;  Colleges  15, 
with  2,347  students;  Normal  i;  Law  i;  Medical  4; 
Theological  i  ;  Music  4;  Technological  n  ;  Industrial  3  ; 
Agricultural  i  ;  Military  1 1  ;  Nautical  i  ;  and  Blind.  In 
the  Azhar  (one  of  the  Mosque  schools)  there  are  some 
325  sheik  teachers  and  11,000  students.  100  pupils  are 
educated  in  Europe  at  Government  expense  for  admin- 
istrative purposes.  There  are  many  denominational 
schools  in  the  non-Moslem  communities.  The  Moham- 
medans constitute  Js  of  the  population.  Libraries,  Mu- 
seums, Educational  and  Census  Bureaus,  Monuments, 
&c.,  are  State  matters.  There  is  a  Government  Printing 
press  at  Boolak. 

Irrigation  is  undertaken  by  the  Government.  The 
cost  per  year  is  about  $2,500,000.  The  special  improve- 
ment of  works  in  1S85  reached  $5,000,000;  and  34-55°,- 
000  more  is  being  spent. 

At  the  head  of  the  Government  is  the  Khedive,  the 
Privy  Council,  and  8  Ministers  for  the  departments  of 
P^inance,  Foreign  Affairs,  Interior,  War,  Marine,  Com- 
merce, Public  Works  and  Agriculture,  and  Public  In- 
struction. There  are  two  additional  sub-departments  of 
Customs  and  Post-office.  The  Legislative  and  Judicial 
functions  are  not  so  clearly  differentiated  from  the  Exec- 
utive. Since  1867  there  has  been  an  annual  Assembly 
of    Notables,    consisting   of  village   sheiks   and    others 


138 

elected  by  the  Communes.  They  assemble  and  hear  the 
Privy  Council's  report  of  the  last  year's  administration, 
and  though  not  a  strictly  Parliamentary  power,  they  ex- 
ercise great  weight  in  State  affairs.  Kgypt  is  well  on  in 
the  transition  from  a  patriarchal  to  a  constitutional  gov- 
ernment. 

In  the  way  of  public  institutions  for  Relief  and  Charity, 
there  are  Dispensaries  ;  Homes  for  Orphans  ;  General, 
Epidemic,  Military  and  Marine  Hospitals  ;  Pension  De- 
partment ;  and  Light  Houses.  Of  the  latter,  there  are 
14  which  have  cost  about  $980,000. 


FALKLAND  ISLANDS. 

(south  ATLANTIC.       BRITISH.) 

AREA,  6,500  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  1,789  in  1891. 

This  is  a  group  of  about  200  islands  l}'ing  250  mi.  east 
of  Patagonia.  There  are  two  main  islands.  The  De- 
fense Force  consists  of  an  officer  and  a  small  company 
of  Marines.  These  islands  deserve  mention  from  the 
fact  of  a  Government  experiment  in  land  occupation. 
In  1867  the  West  Island  had  no  settlers.  The  Govern- 
ment issued  a  proclamation  offering  leases  of  grazing 
stations  at  very  low  rates.  Under  the  impulse  of  this 
cooperative  assistance  the  whole  2,000  sq.  mi.  were  oc- 
cupied within  a  year,  and  the  Government  began  to 
receive  a  revenue  at  once  of  over  $6,-j^o.  Thus  the  peo- 
ple preferred  protected  and  assisted  opportunity  merely 
to  use  land,  rather  than  the  gift  of  such  land  without  the 
community's  interest  and  its  protection.  Although  the 
islands  were  seen  by  Davis  in  1592,  they  have  prospered 
little  till  in  recent  years.  And  now  this  little  cloud- 
covered,  far-off  land  is  a  thriving  community.  In  1892 
they  had  several  Schools  with  some  200  pupils.  When 
it  is  said  that  most  of  the  people  are  English  and  Scotch, 
it  is  not  necessary  to  enumerate  the  many  types  of  so- 


139 

cialized  organization  which  they,  in  common  with  other 
British  colonies,  never  fail  to  develop  for  themselves. 
(See  English  Colony  Tendencies  under  New  Zealand.) 


FIJI. 

(BRITISH  SINCE   1874.) 
AREA,  7,740  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  125,442  in  1S92. 

The  Fiji  group,  in  the  midst  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  con- 
sists of  about  250  islands,  So  of  which  are  inhabited.  In 
European  minds  the  name  Fiji  stands  for  everything  that 
is  savage  and  uncivilized.  Neither  cannibalism  nor  any 
other  abomination  were  seemingly  left  unpracticed  by 
these  stalwart  South  Sea  Islanders.  Widow  strangling 
slave  killing,  and  infanticide  among  themselves ;  and 
morbid  cannibalism  upon  the  unfortunate  ship-wrecked 
or  neighboring  tribes,  were  the  most  common  practices. 
Yet  this  very  people  had  great  human  potentialities. 
They  were,  even  in  their  savagery,  not  treacherous, 
but  polite.  They  ascribed  to  religious  reasons  the 
killing  of  their  aged  or  sick  relatives.  They  were  good 
talkers,  had  fine  reasoning  powers,  tact  and  humor.  By 
their  development  under  British  influence  they  are  prov- 
ing, what  has  been  done  a  thousand  times,  that  in  every 
human  breast  is  a  love  of  the  good  and  a  capacity  for 
improvement  under  inspiring  social  conditions.  Indeed, 
even  in  their  pre-European  state,  they  had  many  of  the 
highest  social  relations.  For  example,  all  property  was 
the  chief's,  but  all  that  the  chief  had,  belonged  to  the 
people.  In  times  of  need  the  chief  made  all  things 
common.  The  chief  was  simply  an  officer  directing  the 
service  and  products  of  the  community.  And  without 
such  a  system  of  mutuality,  they  must  all  have  perished 
in  their  limited  and  far-off  land.  In  some  of  these  res- 
pects their  practices  w^ere  worthy  of  our  study. 

Before  1S74,  and  after  their  contact  with  European 
"civilization,"  about    1840,    they  rapidly  diminished  in 


140 

numbers.  The  measels  took  off  some  40,000  of  them. 
Since  then  they  seem  to  have  increased  somewhat. 
Difficulties  with  the  Tongans  and  with  the  incoming 
Europeans,  caused  the  native  rulers  to  cede  their  lands 
unconditionally  to  Great  Britain  in  1874.  A  Governor 
^was  appointed,  who  is  "High  Commissioner  for  the 
Western  Pacific."  So  far  as  possible  the  British  ruling 
has  been  left  in  native  hands.  It  has  been  assumed  that 
these  people  had  rights,  and  their  own  laws  and  customs 
have  been  tenderly  handled  and  utilized.  Large  num- 
bers of  native  officers,  with  executive  and  magisterial 
powers,  have  been  appointed  to  salaried  positions.  Taxes 
are  raised  according  to  their  own  ideas  of  method.  All 
in  all,  the  result  is  the  development  of  a  new  and  valu- 
able civilized  country.  In  1S92  there  w^ere  some  2,100 
Schools  (including  all  kinds)  with  over  40,000  pupils. 
I  Industrial  School  had  6;^  members.  The  Armed 
native  Police  Force  numbered  100.  The  Post-office 
and  scores  of  other  socialized  enterprises  of  the  high- 
est order  are  in  vogue. 

FINLAND. 

(RUSSIAN.) 
AREA,  144,255  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  2,380,140  in  1890. 

Those  from  whom  we  expect  nothing  could  often  teach 
us  much,  if  we  were  sufficiently  open-minded.  This  is 
the  case  -with.  Finland.  We  think  of  the  Finns  as  a  far- 
off,  shivering,  ice-bound  Northern  people.     Let  us  see. 

In  1890  the  Regular  Army  numbered  10,284,  of  whom 
345  were  officers.     The  Militia  was  35,902. 

The  National  Bank  of  Finland  is  almost  a  State  in- 
stitution. It  controls  Note  Issue.  There  are  the  various 
State  Finance  departments.  Of  the  Land,  35,000,000 
acres  belong  to  the  Crown  (and  are  practically  public 
property),  6,000,000  acres  belong  to  the  upper  classes, 
and  50,000,000  acres  to  the  peasantry,  There  never  was 
any  serfdom  in  Finland. 


141 

The  Railways  are  nearly  all  under  State  ownership. 
In  1891  the  Government  owned  1,176  mi.  (private  com- 
panies 21  mi.).  The  Government  Roads  had  cost  to  the 
end  of  1891,  145,210,115  marks,  (i  mark  is  about  gj^ 
d.,  or  20  cts.)  Receipts  of  State  Railroads  in  189 1  were 
12,732,490  marks  ;  expenses,  8,204,907  ;  profits,  4,527,5^3- 
In  1890  there  were  421  Post-offices;  receipts,  1,547,529 
marks;  expenses,  1,096,436  ;  profits,  451,093,  There  are 
2  State  Canals  reaching  70  mi.,  and  several  shorter  ones. 
The  net  profits  on  these  in  1891  were  236,502  marks. 
There  is  a  fine  system  of  Navigation  made  by  the  Lakes 
and  Rivers.  Roads,  Streets,  Harbors,  Wharves,  Bridges 
and  Markets  are  State  property. 

Education  is  under  public  control  and  in  a  highly  ad- 
vanced state.  In  1892  there  were  825  Primary  Schools, 
with  51,689  pupils;  113  Secondary,  with  10,238  pupils; 
I  University  ;  4  Normal,  with  459  students  ;  Law  ;  Medi- 
cal; Theological ;  10  Agricultural ;  i  Technological,  with 
130  students;  75  Industrial,  with  2,129  members;  i  Mili- 
tary ;  7  Nautical,  with  152  Marines ;  2  Blind ;  and  4  Deaf 
and  Dumb.  The  State  Church  is  the  Evangelical  Luth- 
eran, but  the  fullest  toleration  is  granted  to  others. 
There  are  numerous  other  educational  provisions  in  the 
way  of  Libraries ;  Museums ;  Bureaus  for  Census,  Me- 
teorology, Agriculture,  &c. 

The  Government  engages  in  Car  and  Locomotive 
building,  Foundries,  &c.  It  gives  premiums  for  im- 
provements in  the  breeds  of  horses  and  cattle  for  various 
types  and  purposes. 

In  form  of  government,  it  is  a  Russian  province.  The 
Czar  is  Grand  Duke  of  Finland  ;  and  the  Russian  gov- 
ernment manages  the  external  administration.  There  is 
a  Governor-General  and  an  Imperial  Senate  of  18  mem- 
bers. In  internal  affairs  it  is  an  independent  state.  The 
legislation  is  by  the  House  of  Nobles,  and  the  elected 
Diet  (or  Landtag).  There  are  4  Estates,  viz  :  Nobles, 
Clergy,  Burghers,  and  Peasants,  Each  is  convoked  once 
in  every  4  or  5  years.     The  country  is  divided  into  8 


142 

Lans  or  Provinces,  and  4S0  Communes.  There  are  4 
Supreme  Courts,  besides  many  District  and  Municipal. 
The  socialized  machinery  for  Law  and  Order  is  very 
complete. 

The  problem  of  Relief  and  Charity  is  less  pressing 
than  in  many  other  countries  boasting  far  higher  civili- 
zation. 


GREECE. 

AREA,  25,041  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  2,187,208111  1S89. 

Greece  gained  its  independence  from  Turkey  in  1S29. 
It  saddled  upon  itself  a  monarchy  by  its  own  election  ; 
and,  when  after  a  reign  of  29  years  this  Prince  Otto  of 
Bavaria  was  expelled  from  the  kingdom,  they  again  in 
1S62  commited  the  same  preposterous  foolishness  by 
electing  another  king,  a  son  of  the  present  sovereign  of 
Denmark.  Great  Britain,  France  and  Russia  aided  in 
this  abasement,  and  they  even  yet  pay  yearly  ^"4,000 
each  toward  keeping  up  the  farce  of  royalty  in  Greece. 

In  1893  the  Regular  Army  numbered  24,877  (of  whom 
1,880  were  officers).  The  expense  for  the  Army  in  1893 
was  14,582,466  drachmai.  (i  drachma!  equals  i  franc  or 
20  cents.)  The  First  Reserve,  or  Militia,  in  1893  num- 
bered 79,623,  The  Navy  in  1S92  carried  3,636  men  (767 
officers),  on  2  Port  Defense  Ships,  23  Cruisers,  and  18 
Torpedo  Boats  (in  all  43)  ;  and  cost  (1893),  5,154,874 
drachmai. 

The  Finaficial  condition  of  the  nation  is  very  bad. 
The  Gold  Debt  in  1892  was  597,942,167  drachmai,  and 
the  Paper  Debt,  151,696,183  dr.  In  June,  1S93,  the  Greek 
Government  failed  to  meet  its  obligations(!).  It  was 
proposed  to  readjust  and  pay  off  the  Gold  Debt  at  3o%(!) 
and  to  pay  all  the  Paper(!). 

Of  the  Railways,  92  mi.  were  under  State  ownership  in 
1892,  and  476  mi.  under  private  ownership.  The  Post- 
office  had  296  offices  in  1S91,  with  receipts  amounting  to 


143 

1,463,217  dr.;  expenses,  1,560,473  dr.;  and  deficit,  97,256 
dr.  The  State  Telegraph  Kad  in  1892,  4,751  mi.  of  line, 
5,630  mi.  of  wire,  and  191  offices.  There  are  2,043  mi-  of 
good  Roads.  The  Canal  through  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth 
is  4  mi.  long.  It  was  opened  in  1893,  having  cost  a  vast 
sum. 

The  Primary  Schools  in  1892  numbered  2,745,  with 
3,680  teachers  and  139,385  pupils  (of  whom  only  22,100 
were  girls);  the  Secondary,  295,  with  3,280  pupils  ;  Col- 
leges ;  Law ;  Medical ;  Theological,  5  ;  and  Technologi- 
cal. The  General  Government  expended  on  Education 
in  1893,  7,397,990  dr.  30%  of  the  Army  neither  read  nor 
write  and  15%  read  only.  The  State  Church  is  the  Holy 
Orthodox  Catholic  and  Apostolic  (or  Greek  Orthodox). 
There  is  a  Holy  Synod,  consisting  of  the  Metropolitan 
of  Athens  and  4  elected  Archbishops  and  Bishops.  There 
21  Archbishops,  29  Bishops,  2,650  Monks,  485  Nuns  and 
161  monastaries  and  nunneries. 

The  head  Executive  is  in  the  hands  of  the  King  and 
his  7  Ministers.  The  administration  cost  in  1893,  8,106- 
368  dr.  The  National  Legislation  is  by  the  Boule.  It 
consists  of  only  i  House,  with  150  members  (elected  for 
4  years).  Representatives  are  paid  ;^72  (^350  each) 
yearly.  The  cost  of  the  Boule  in  1893  was  504,258  dr. 
Greece  is  not  nearly  so  highly  developed  socially  as  many 
another  country  from  whom  less  is  naturally  expected. 
It  has  been  cursed  with  Mohammedan  despotism,  and 
has  been  a  bone  of  contention  among  the  monarchical 
pirates,  of  Europe. 


GUATEMALA. 

AREA,  46,800  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  1,460,017  in  1890. 

In  1891  the  Army  of  Guatemala  numbered  3,918;  and 
the  Militia  67,300.  (Railways  cover  only  118  mi.  (1S92) 
They  are  all  in  private  hands,  but  are  subsidized  to  the 
extent  of  $8,000  per  mi.  by  the  Government.)     In  1892 


144 

there  were  171  Post-offices  and  119  Telegraph-offices 
connecting  2,475  ^^^-  of  I'^ic.  Paths,  Roads,  Streets, 
Harbors,  Wharves,  Markets  and  Bridges  belong  to  the 
State.  As  to  Schools  :  in  1892  there  were  1,284  Primary, 
with  about  1,600  teachers  and  43,789  pupils  ;  13  Second- 
ary, with  1,964  pupils;  7  Normal,  (in  1889)  with  1,185 
students;  besides  other  kinds.  The  General  Govern- 
ment expended  in  1892,  ^1,129,995. 

The  form  of  government  is  republican.  At  the  head 
stands  the  President,  his  Cabinet,  and  a  National  Assem- 
bly of  52  members  (elected  for  4  years).  These  things 
imply  a  vast  amount  of  other  social  machinery. 

GUIANA. 

(BRITISH.) 

AREA,  109,000  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  278,285  in  1892. 

Guiana  is  in  many  respects  a  very  backward  country; 
still  it  has  the  usual  machinery  of  government  found  in 
Ikitish  colonies,  various  educational  establishments,  &c. 
There  were  187  Primary  Schools  in  1892,  enrolling  25,734 
pupils;  and  the  General  Government  grant  was  £^7,8gs- 
In  1 893  there  were  23  mi.  of  Railway  owned  by  the  State. 
The  Roads  are  said  to  be  good.  The  State  owns  23  mi. 
of  Canal,  and  275  mi.  of  Navigable  River.  It  had  62 
Post-offices  in  1893,  30  of  which  were  Money  Order 
offices.  In  the  same  year  there  were  360  mi.  of  Tele- 
graph (including  cables),  having  38  offices. 

GUIANA. 

(dutch.) 
AREA,  46,060  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  57,388  in  1891. 

The  Dutch  colonies  rarely  equal  in  social  advantages 
those  established  by  the  P.nglish,  and  this  is  true  in 
Guiana.  There  is  a  home  Militia  of  478  men  (28  officers), 
and  a  Navy  of  a  few  Port  Defense  ships.     The  Postal 


145 

Service  and  a  few  particulars  regarding  Education  are 
all  the  data  obtainable.  In  1S91  there  were  19  Primary 
Schools  with  2,189  pupils,  and  3  Normal  Schools. 

HAITI. 

AREA,  10,204  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  572,000  in  1890. 

The  island  of  Haiti  is  the  home  of  2  small  nations. 
Santo  Domingo  and  the  Republic  of  Haiti.  The  Army 
of  the  republic  comprises  about  6,Soo,  and  it  has  a  Navy 
of  6  Cruisers.  The  Post-office  had  31  stations  in  1892. 
There  were  in  1891,  400  Primary  and  5  Secondary 
Schools.  The  State  Church  is  Roman  Catholic.  At  the 
head  of  the  Government  is  a  President  and  a  National 
Assembly  of  2  Houses.  The  Senate  has  30  members 
(elected  for  5  years),  and  the  House  of  Representatives 
50  (elected  for  5  years).  There  is  a  Police  Force  called 
the' "Guard  of  the  Government"  of  650  men.  Much 
other  machinery  relating  to  the  social  order  may  be 
inferred. 

HAWAII. 

AREA,  6,640  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  89,990  in  1S90. 

The  Sandwich  Islands  have  lately  passed  through  a 
revolution  in  which  the  native  Queen  and  her  Govern- 
ment have  been  set  aside.  This  revolution  has  been 
occasioned  not  by  the  natives  but  by  rich  American  mer- 
chants and  planters  who  have  settled  there  in  considerable 
numbers,  and  who  by  their  moneyed  influence  have  been 
able  to  establish  a  so-called  republic  (in  reality  an  oli- 
garchy). Before  this  the  natives  had  shown  themselves 
susceptible  to  advancement  and  had  made  a  great  pro- 
gress in  recent  times. 

In  1890  there  was  a  system  of  Postal  Savings  Banks 
having  2,641  depositors.  The  Post-offices  numbered  54. 
The  State  Telegraph  covered  250  mi.  in  1S91.     In  1S92 


14G 

there  were  i68  Primary  Schools,  with  392  teachers  and 
10,712  pupiis.  Besides  these  there  were  Normal  and 
other  Schools.  The  Government  expended  on  schools 
in  1890,  ;^i95,7i9.  A  German  Education  journal  says, 
"In  60  years  the  Hawaiin  Public  School  system  has 
been  developed  and  can  now  compare  with  that  of 
Europe."  From  very  ancient  times  the  Government  has 
assisted  in  Irrigation. 

In  certain  features  of  material  advancement,  doubtless 
this  country  will  make  great  progress  in  the  near  future  ; 
but  under  the  domination  of  this  American  millionaire 
influence  but  little  is  to  be  hoped  for  socially. 


HONDURAS  REPUBLIC. 

AREA,  43,000  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  431,917  in  1SS9. 

On  the  ruins  of  empires,  empires  rise.  Honduras  is 
one  of  the  many  new  nations  springing  up  on  the  soil  of 
ancient  American  civilizations.  There  is  a  regular  Armed 
force  of  500  men,  and  a  Militia  of  about  32,000.  The 
Postoffices  numbered  56  in  1890,  and  had  receipts  amount- 
ing to  only  ^19,436,  while  the  Government  expended 
$157)^51,  and  had  a  deficit  of  1^138,415.  This  is  an  indi- 
cation of  State  enterprise.  It  has  1,800  mi.  of  Telegraph 
with  70  offices  in  1890.  In  1889  there  were  600  Primary 
Schools  with  23,000  pupils.  There  were  also  9  Colleges, 
besides  other  educational  facilities.  There  is  a  President 
and  a  Congress  with  i  House  of  37  members  (elected  for 
4  years).  These  establishments  imply  much  other  State 
activity. 

ICELAND. 

(DANISH.) 

AREA,  39,756  s(i.  mi.  POPULATION,  70,927  in  1892. 

Iceland  furnishes  another  social  surprise.  Here  is  a 
land  crossed   by  the  Arctic  Circle,  which    has  its  own 


147 

constitution  and  a  representative  government.  (See 
charter  of  August  i,  1874.)  At  the  head  of  the  admin- 
istration is  a  Minister  nominated  by  the  king  of  Den- 
mark. Besides  him,  the  people  elect  a  Governor  as  their 
highest  local  authority.  There  are  two  Atntmands  or 
Vice- Governors,  for  the  west  and  north  of  Iceland.  The 
Althing  (or  Parliament)  has  36  members,  6  of  whom  are 
nominated  by  the  king  of  Denmark  and  30  elected  by 
popular  suffrage.  The  suffrage  is  universal,  both  men 
women  participating. 

There  is  not  an  illiterate  person  on  the  island  above  7 
years  old.  Teaching  is  done  very  largely  at  home,  al- 
though there  are  Primary  Schools  in  the  various  villages, 
some  High  Schools,  2  Colleges,  i  Medical,  1  Theologi- 
cal, I  Agricultural,  and  i  Nautical.  Children  of  12  know 
Latin,  the  language  in  which  their  ancient  literature  was 
written.  The  people  are  plain,  chaste,  temperate,  intel- 
ligent. There  are  no  Police,  because  there  are  no  thieves. 
There  is  only  i  Jail,  but  at  last  report  there  had  been 
nobody  in  it  for  7.  pears.  There  are  no  Poor  Houses, 
because  there  are  no  paupers  ;or  perhaps  better,  because 
there  are  no  plutocrats  to  make  paupers.  There  is  a 
universal  spirit  of  hospitality,  and  a  remarkable  dispo- 
sition toward  cooperation. 


INDIA. 

(IIKITISII.) 

AREA,  964,993  .s.j.  mi.  POPULATION,  221,172,952  in  1S91. 

DP:FENSP:  of  nation.  Regular  Militia,  145,636, 
(officers,  4,335  ;  men,  Mi,3oi)-  The  expense  in  iSyi 
was  Rx23,557,9oo.  (Rx  stands  for  lo's  of  rupees,  i  ru- 
pee is  about  2  s.  or  about  50  cts.,  and  10  rupees  is  about 
£1  or  about  ;^5.)  There  is  also  a  Special  Militia  of 
14,028,  The  Navy  includes  3  Port  Defense  Ships,  10 
Cruisers,  and  2  Torpedo  Boats  ;  total  15. 


148 

FINANCE.  The  Savings  Banks  are  of  4  classes: 
Presidency,  3  ;  Railway,  11  ;  Postal,  6,^52  ;  and  Military, 
175  ;  total  in  1892,  6,641  ;  depositors,  528.153  ;  deposited 
at  the  end  of  1S92,  Rx8,o6o,676.  There  is  a  branch  of 
the  Royal  Mint  which  coined  in  1S92,  Rxi 2,822,645, 
The  other  financial  machinery  includes  Customs,  Internal 
Revenue,  Tax  Collecting,  and  Treasury  departments. 

DISTRIBUTION.  The  good  Roads  cover  153,507  mi. 
The  Railways  owned  by  the  State  in  1S93  covered  18,042 
mi.  It  first  assumed  ownership  in  1852,  and  now  possesses 
Yz  of  all  the  Roads.  The  private  Railways  are  subsidized 
by  the  State  which  guarantees  5  %  income  besides  giving 
the  land.  The  total  cost  to  the  State  for  all  Railways  up 
to  the  end  of  1892  was  Rx234,463,6i9.  The  receipts  for 
1892  were  Rx23, 229, 281  ;  expenses,  Rxio, 900, 005  ;  profits, 
Rxi 2,329,275.  The  Government  controls  Parcel  Post 
Express  which  is  limited  to  1 1  pounds.  The  Postal  Ser- 
vice had  26,465  offices  in  1892.  Its  receipts  were  Rxi,- 
445,925  ;  expenses,  Rxr,496,4i7  ;  deficit,  Rx5o,492.  The 
State  Telegraph  in  1892  extended  over  38,625  mi.  with 
120,159  mi.  of  wire.  It  had  cost  Rx5, 007, 000.  The  re- 
ceipts for  1892  were  Rx9i9,335  ;  expenses,  Rx838,72o  ; 
profits,  Rx8o,6i5;  (making  a  net  profit  on  Post  and  Tele- 
graph of  about  $200,000).  The  State  Canals  and  Navi- 
gable Rivers  amount  to  5,000  mi.  Streets,  Harbors, 
Wharves.  Bridges,  Markets  and  Telephones  are  State 
provisions. 

EDUCATION.  In  1892  the  Primary  Schools  num- 
bered 97,179,  with  2,841,589  pupils  ;  the  Secondary,  4,907, 
with  477,576  pupils  ;  Colleges,  19,  with  16,461  students  ; 
Universities,  5,  with  6,358  students;  Normal  in  every 
Province  ;  Law  ;  Medical  ;  Art  ;  Technological  and  In- 
dustrial, 560,  with  21,936  students;  and  Agricultural. 
The  expense  assumed  by  the  general  Government  in  1892 
was  Rx3,o73,i84.  There  is  an  Ecclesiastical  (Civil)  Es- 
tablishment of  5  bishops  and  160  chaplains.  The  Indian 
Government  also  allows  grants  to  certain  other  clergy- 


149 

men,  priests,  &c.,  when  ministering  to  British  regiments. 
The  other  educational  instrumentaHties  are  very  num- 
erous and  include  Bureaus  of  Agriculture,  Census,  I^du- 
cation,  Meteorology;  provision  for  Archaeological,  Coast, 
Geographical  and  Geological  Investigations  ;  Libraries  ; 
Museums,  etc. 

PRODUCTION.  Irrigation  is  accomplished  by  the 
Ganges  Canal  which  has  437  mi.  of  main  line  and  3,5 7*^ 
mi  of  tributaries.  It  is  one  of  the  greatest  systems  in 
the  world.  The  total  area  i rrigated  covers  1 3 ,00,000  acres. 
It  was  completed  in  1854  at  a  cost  of  Rx2,855,6i4.  The 
Sirhind  Canal  in  the  Punjab  has  542  mi.  of  main  line  and 
4,385  mi.  of  tributaries.  It  cost  Rx3, 708,000.  In  Madras 
3  other  systems  irrigate  2,000,000  acres.  The  total  reve- 
nue from  all  these  in  iS93-4is  set  down  at  ;^2,337,7oo  and 
the  expense  at  ^2,860.100. 

Besides  this  the  Government  conducts  a  considerable 
trade  in  various  branches  of  Means  Production,  includ- 
ing Car  and  Locomotive  building,  Engineering,  Foun- 
dries, Cinchona  Farms  (Peruvian  bark),  and  Opium  Fac- 
tories (at  Patna  and  Ghazipur).  From  1SS3  to  1892  the 
average  annual  net  revenue  from  Opium  alone  was 
Rx6,374,87r. 

LAW  AND  ORDER;  The  executive  consists  of  a 
Governor  General  and  Council.  From  them  also  pro- 
ceed the  National  Legislation.  The  various  Provinces 
have  their  native  rulers  and  legislative  machineries.  In 
1892  there  were  761  Municipal  Governments  having  a 
population  of  15,742,581.  Of  Civil  Courts  there  were 
in  1890,  5,600  Magistrates  and  1,720  civil  judges.  In 
Superior  Courts  there  were  450  judges.  The  Police 
Force  in  1891  numbered  144,420,  of  whom  58,606  carried 
fire  arms  and  44,962  carried  swords.  There  were  527 
Lock-ups,  36  Central  and  1S2  District  Prisons.  The 
social  machinery  for  Law  and  Order  included  also  Boards 
for  Apportioning,  Appraising,  Assaying,  Assessing,  Au- 
diting, Registering,  &c. 


150 

Institutions  for  Relief  and  Charity  and  the  general 
public  safety  are  numerous.  I  will  only  mention  that 
of  Forestry.  In  1892,  62,927  sq.  mi.  of  forest  were  de- 
marcated, reserved,  and  scientifically  worked  by  the 
State.     The  net  revenue  was  Rx595,ooo. 

ITALY. 

AREA,  114,410  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  30,535,848  in  1892. 

DEFENSE  OF  NATION.  In  1892  the  Regular 
Army  numbered  247,809  (officers,  14,639;  men,  223,170); 
Militia  (First  Reserve),  2,182,605  (officers  17,104).  Forts 
and  Armories  are  numerous.  The  Navy  had  22,529  men 
of  whom  1,305  were  officers.  There  were  12  Battle  Ships, 
4  for  Port  Defense,  6^  Cruisers,  and  140  Torpedo  Boats  ; 
total  219.     The  Naval  Reserve  comprises  17,000  men. 

FINANCE.  Postal  Savings  Banks  were  introduced 
in  1875.  The  first  year  1,989  offices  were  opened.  In 
1891  there  were  4,594,  with  2,312,323  depositors  and 
333,683,978  iire  deposited  at  the  end  of  the  year.  The 
School  Savings  Banks  receive  money  from  pupils  and 
place  it  in  the  Postal  Savings  Banks.  In  18SS,  5,401 
teachers  received  deposits  from  87,764  pupils,  amounting 
to  467,697  lire.  The  Coinage  is  done  by  the  State.  The 
Note  Issue  is  limited  to  6  Banks  which  form  a  union, 
made  so  by  special  law.  There  are  30  Agrarian  Loan 
Funds.  The  Customs,  Internal  Revenue,  Tax  Collect- 
ing, Treasury,  &c.,  are  included  in  the  State  financial 
provisions. 

DISTRIBUTION.  About  1880  there  were  5,151  mi. 
of  National  Roads,  15,596  of  Provincial,  and  48,295  of 
Communal.  The  State  owned  in  1889  8,407  km.  of 
Railway.  (Private  companies  owned  4,484  km.,  of  which 
the  Government  operates  155  km.)  The  private  com- 
panies have  paid  the  Government  250,000,000  lire  (or 
1^48,025,000  franchise  money.  They  also  pay  27^2  % 
of  the   gross   earnings.     The   total    receipts    (for   State 


151 

and  private  railways)  for  1889  were  254,748,017  lire; 
expenses,  168,394,065  ;  profits,  86,353,952.  .  The  State 
first  assumed  railway  ownership  in  i860.  The  number 
of  Post-offices  in  1892  was  5,917.  The  Money  Orders 
drawn  amounted  to  665,687,676  lire.  The  State  Tele- 
graph in  1892  extended  over  22,014  mi-,  with  69,428  mi. 
of  wire  and  had  2,816  offices.  The  receiptswere  63,804,- 
3i4lire  ;  expenses,  53,591,322  ;  profits,  10,212,992.  There 
are  663  mi.  of  State  Canals,  and  1,100  mi.  of  Navigable 
Rivers.  The  Harbors  are  of  3  classes,  are  improved  and 
maintained  by  the  Government.  Wharves,  Bridges, 
Markets  and  Streets  are  also  State  property. 

EDUCATION.  In  1891  the  Public  Schools  were  as 
follows:  Kindergartens^  2,296,  with  5,892  teachers  and 
278,204  pupils;  Primary,  48,198,  with  49,366  teachers 
and  2,188,930  pupils;  Secondary,  9,882,  with  15,181 
teachers  and  368,599  pupils;  Universities,  21,  with  966 
instructors  and  17,588  students  ;  Colleges,  22,  with  2,952 
students  ;  Normal,  141,  with  1,472  instructors  and  15,184 
students  ;  Law  ;  Medical  ;  Art,  15,  with  3,310  students  ; 
Music,  6,  with  7S0  students  ;  Technological,  397,  with 
2,948  instructors  and  33,627  students;  Industrial,  176, 
with  23,328  students  ;  Agricultural,  32,  with  887  students; 
Military;  Nautical,  21,  with  180  instructors  and  1,420 
marines  ;  Blind  9;  Deaf  and  Dumb,  35,  with  7,000  pupils. 
For  Primary  and  Secondary  Education  the  General  Gov- 
ernment paid  in  1889,  61,768,939  lire  (or  $13,941,753.) 

The  State  Church  is  Roman  Catholic.  The  Pope's 
personnel  includes  about  2,000  individuals.  Italy  is 
the  great  center  of  the  strongest  Christian  organization 
in  the  world.  The  religious  and  educational  foundations 
are  very  numerous.  Some  50,000  of  these  were  abroga- 
ted between  1855  and  1S67. 

There  are  numerous  other  State  ])rovisions  for  public 
instruction.  They  include  Bureaus  for  Agriculture, 
Census,  Education,  Ethnology,  &c.;  Art  Galleries  ;  Bo- 
tanic  and    Zoological    Gardens  ;    Fairs  ;    Libraries    (of 


152 

which  in  1891  there  were  32  having  943,903  readers,  and 
giving  out  1,167,462  books)  ;  Museums,  Monuments,  &c. 

LAW  AND  ORDER.  The  form  of  Government  is 
Constitutional  Monarchy.  The  administration  is  by  the 
King,  and  9  Ministers.  The  National  Legislation  is  by 
a  Senate  of  335  menibers  (consisting  of  princes  of  the 
royal  blood  and  an  unlimited  number  of  members  ap- 
pointed by  the  king  for  life),  and  a  Chamber  of  508  De- 
puties (elected  for  5  years).  Neither  Senators  nor  De- 
puties receive  pay,  but  both  have  free  passes  on  the  rail- 
ways. There  are  69  Provincial  and  innumerable  Muni- 
pal  governments.  The  Civil  Courts  numbered  162  ;  the 
Assize  86  ;  and  there  are  other  Courts  of  Appeal,  Cas- 
sation, and  Magisterial.  314  Prisons  are  reported.  The 
Police  Force  is  very  large.  The  governing  machinery 
includes  also  Diplomatic  and  Consulate  Service,  the 
various  boards  and  commissions  necessary  for  Assessing, 
Auditing,  and  Tax  Collecting  ;  Copyrighting,  Patenting, 
the  management  and  oversight  of  Railroads,  Rivers, 
Ports,  etc. 

RELIEF,  CHARITY,  AND  SAFETY.  There  are 
about  4,oco  Charity  Bureaus  ;  many  Dispensaries  ;  340 
Homes  for  Orphans  ;  about  1,200  General  Hospitals  ;  102 
Infant  Hospitals  ;  18  Lying-in  Hospitals  ;  10  Marine  Hos- 
pitals ;  15  Insane  Asylums;  Houses  of  Refuge;  Life 
Saving  Stations;  16  first-class  Light  Houses  and  many 
others  ;  695  Public  Pawn  Shops  ;  a  Pension  Department  ; 
Poor  Houses  ;  and  1,965  Seed  Loan  offices. 

JAMAICA. 

(west  indies.       BRITISH.) 

AREA,  4,200  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  639,491  in  1S90. 

The  Militia  in  1892  numbered  465.  There  are  7  Forts. 
A  British  garrison  is  stationed  here.  The  Government 
owned  in  1892  the  89  mi.  of  Railway;  and  the  receipts 
amounted  to   £^1,486  ;  expenses,  ^^"59,963  ;  and  profits, 


153 

^12,523.  The  Post-oilfice,  Streets,  Roads,  Harbor, 
Wharves,  Markets  and  Telegraph  are  State  property. 
In  1892  there  were  695  mi.  of  Telegraph  line  having 
receipts  of  ^5,7^jS  ;  expenses,  ^^6,382  ;  and  a  deficit  of 
;{;'6i4.  The  Primary  Schools  in  1892  numbered  877, 
with  83,731  pupils  ;  there  were  also  Secondary,  Normal, 
Technological,  and  Industrial.  The  Government  grant 
was  ^30,736.  Many  other  pubHc  provisions  for  general 
information  exist.  The  Government  is  organized  and  is 
the  usual  British  colonial  type. 


JAPAN. 

AREA,  147,655  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  40,718,677  in  1S91. 

Japan  socially  considered,  is  the  wonder  of  the  modern 
world.  Its  progress  in  civilization  is  marvellous.  There 
is  scarcely  a  country  in  the  world  which  shows  such 
careful  social  organization.  It  is  believed  that  the  fol- 
lowing facts  and  figures,  taken  from  the  Imperial  Gov- 
ernment reports,  will  be  found  of  unusual  interest.  The 
exact  and  definite  data  which  the  Japanese  collect  re- 
garding their  country  and  social  condition  are  in  bril- 
liant contrast  to  the  indefinite  and  chaotic  Chinese  nation. 
Herein  is  to  be  found  the  secret  of  Japan's  unparalleled 
victorious  march  into  Chinese  territory,  and  her  unheard 
of  strides  of  progress  in  recent  times. 

DEFENSE  OF  NATION. 

The  Regular  Army  in  1891  numbered  269,620  (18,366 
officers,  and  251,254  men).  It  cost  in  1891-2,  $12,654,807. 
The  Militia  (reserve)  in  1890  numbered  127,565.  There 
were  1,608  persons  on  the  staff  of  the  Minister  of  War 
in  1891,  and  their  salaries  were$4o6,344. 

The  Navy  in  1891  numbered  14,190  men  (3,339  officers 
and  10,791  marines).  There  were  36  Cruisers  and  41 
Torpedo  Boats.  Since  then  there  has  been  added  seve- 
ral other  Battle  Ships  and  Cruisers.     The  Navy  cost  in 


154 

1891-2,  $5,42  1,888.     The  staff  of  the  Minister  of  Marines 
had   1,258  persons  in   1891,  with  salaries  amounting  to 

FINANCE. 

The  Bank  of  Japan  (Imperially  managed)  had  a  capital 
of  ^10,000,000  in  1891.  (There  were  135  private  and 
company  banks.)  In  1891  the  Postal  Savings  Banks 
numbered  2,840,  with  843,320  depositors  and  $20,149,848 
deposited  at  the  end  of  the  year.     The  rate  was  4.2  %. 

The  Coinage  in  circulation  in  1891-2  was  $188,891,364. 
The  Note  Issue  up  to  March  31,  1892,  had  been  $136,- 
161,150. 

The  Treasury  Budget  for  1892-3  indicates  $86,068,080 
receipts.  The  local  tax  receipts  for  189 1-2  were  $16,- 
783,782.  On  the  staff  of  the  Minister  of  Finance  were 
1,476  persons  in  1891,  wath  salaries  of  $433,879. 

The  State  property  of  various  kinds  is  partly  as  fol- 
lows :  School  property,  $19,323,315  ;  Crown  land,  8,956,- 
162  acres  ;  Land  for  Government  purposes,  194,361 
acres;  Forest  lands,  28,745,354  acres;  open  field  land, 
14,375,745  acres;  miscellaneous  lands,  176,400  acres; 
total,  52,448,022  acres.  (The  private  lands  covered  30,- 
658,223  acres.  The  public  lands  count  only  that  which 
is  surveyed,  and  the  private  only  that  which  is  taxed.) 

Besides  these  must  be  mentioned  the  extensive  de- 
partments for  Customs,  Internal  Revenue,  &c. 

DISTRIBUTION. 

The  Railways  are  about  ^3  owned  by  the  State.  In 
1883  it  first  assumed  management,  and  in  1S92  it  owned 
551.28  mi.  These  had  cost  $34,241,504.  There  were 
116  stations,  124  locomotives,  617  coaches,  and  1,685 
freight  cars.  The  receipts  for  1892  were  $4,110,141  ; 
expenses,  $2,436,900;  profits,  $1,683,241.  The  staff  of 
the  Bureau  of  Railways  numbered  2,900  in  1891,  with 
salaries  of  $439,692.  (The  private  railways  covered 
1,199.15  mi.,  and  cost  $44,061,623.)  The  total  number 
of  persons  killed  on  Japanese  railways  in  1890  was 
1,584. 


155 

The  Post-offices  in  i''S9i  numbered  3,35'j,  of  which 
1,928  were  Money  Order  Offices.  They  employed  3,424 
persons.  The  receipts  (including  Telegraph)  were 
^5,049.360;  expenses,  ;g4,ii9,62i  ;  profits,  $929,739- 
The  Money  Orders  drawn  covered  ;^i9,793,473,  and 
the  Money  Orders  paid  amounted  to  $19,776,270. 

The  State  Telegraph  lines  included  7,671  mi.  (22,- 
244  mi.  of  wire),  and  had  524  offices  in  1891.  (Re- 
ceipts, &c.,  are  included  in  those  of  Post-offices.)  In 
1S92  there  were  238  mi.  of  Cable.  The  Telephone  is 
included  with  the  Telagraph.  There  were  in  1892,  376 
mi.  of  line,  3,234  mi.  of  wire,  and  1,504  subscribers. 
The  staff  of  the  Minister  of  Communication  numbered 
^)^55  persons  in  1891,  with  salaries  of  $973,283. 

The  Roads  (21,490  mi.),  Streets,  Harbors,  Wharves, 
Ferries,  Bridges,  Express  Service  and  Canals  belong  to 
the  State  or  towns.  One  of  the  Canals,  6^^  mi.  long,  is 
one  cf  the  greatest  pieces  of  engineering  in  the  world. 
The  Government  also  owns  32  small  Steam  Vessels,  ap- 
parently used  for  messenger  and  express  service. 

EDUCATIOX. 

The  public  provisions  for  Education  are  most  exten- 
sive. The  staff  of  the  Minister  of  Public  Instruction  had 
in  1891,  1,382  persons  with  salaries  $626,831.  The 
scheme  includes  Bureaus  of  Agriculture,  Archaeology, 
Biology,  Census,  Education,  Ethnology,  Meteorology 
(45  stations  in  1 891)  ;  Botanic  and  Zoological  Gardens  ; 
Coast  and  Geological  Surveys  ;  Museums  ;  Fairs  ;  Read- 
ing Rooms  ;  and  Libraries.  In  1891  there  were  20  pub- 
lic Libraries  reported,  having  181,942  volumes.  There 
is  no  State  religion  and  no  legal  State  support,  though 
local  authorities  maintain  the  principal  Shinto  Temples. 
In  1891,  there  were  193,153  Shinto  and  71,859  Buddhist 
Temples. 

The  Public  Schools  in  1S91  were  as  follows  :  147  Kin- 
dergartens, with  317  teachers  and  8,662  pupils  ;  25,374 
Primary,  with  69,608   teachers  and  3,153,813  pupils  ;  93 


156 

Secondary,  with  1,461  teachers  and  21,589  pupils;  3 
Universities,  with  248  professors  and  1,385  students; 
49  ISormal,  with  668  instructors  and  5,354  students; 
(Law,  Medical  and  Theological  in  Universities)  ;  several 
Art,  with  29  instructors  and  189  students  ;  i  Music,  with 
4  instructors  and  37  students  ;  i  Post  and  Telegraph, 
with  II  instructors  and  114  students;  88  Technological, 
with  1,683  instructors,  and  18,447  students;  1,682  Indus- 
trial, with  4,300  instructors  and  85,806  students  ;  Agri- 
cultural ;  over  10  Military,  with  596  instructors  and  2,186 
cadets  ;  9  Nautical  and  Naval,  with  156  instructors  and 
644  Marines  ;  2  Nobility,  with  80  instructors  and  1,024 
pupils;  2  or  3  Deaf  and  Dumb,  with  13  instructors  and 
72  pupils.  The  General  Government  grant  in  1890  was 
;$io,438.7io. 

PRODUCTION. 

On  the  staff  of  the  Minister  of  Agriculture  and  Com- 
merce in  1S91  were  2,741  persons,  with  salaries  of  $460,- 
942.  In  1891  the  Government  owned  i  Coal  Mine,  2 
Copper,  2  Gold,  i  Iron,  2  Silver,  and  i  Sulphate  of  Cop- 
per. The  State  engineering  department  had  on  the  staff 
2,344  persons,  with  salaries  of  $823,376.  The  Budget 
for  1892-3  estimates  the  receipts  from  the  various  State 
Productive  and  Distributing  enterprises  at  $9,262,709. 

LAW  AND  ORDER. 

Before  February  nth,  1889,  the  Government  was  an 
absolute  monarchy.  It  has  now  a  Constitution  and  2 
Houses.  At  the  head  of  the  administration  is  the  Em- 
peror, his  Cabinet,  and  a  Privy  Council.  By  and  with 
the  advice  of  these,  he  declares  war,  makes  peace, 
treaties,  &c.  The  total  administrative  personnel  in  1891 
was  21,143,  with  salaries  of  $6,025,029.  The  Imperial 
Cabinet  staff  alone  numbered  308  with  salaries  of 
$223,068. 

The  Parliament  consists  of  300  Peers  (Princes,  Mar- 
quises, Counts,  Viscounts,  l^arons,  &c.,)  and  300  Depu- 
ties (elected  for  4  years).     The  46  Provinces  each  have 


157 

Governors  and  Prcfcctural  Assemblies.     The  Municipal- 
ities have  chief  magistrates,  town  councils,  &c. 

In  the  department  of  Justice  the  personnel  in  1891  was 
4,061,  with  salaries  of  ;$2,i32,i48.  The  Supreme  Court 
(in  1890)  had  31  judges,  5  prosecuting  attorneys,  and  44 
other  officers.  There  were  (1890)  48  Common  Courts 
with  463  judges,  126  prosecuting  attorneys,  and  1,671 
other  officers;  7  Courts  of  Appeal  with  98  judges,  26 
prosecuting  attorneys,  and  275  other  officers;  299  Jus- 
tice Courts,  with  697  magistrates,  248  attorneys,  and 
5,504  other  officers. 

The  Police  Force  in  1890  numbered  29,338,  and  they 
were  stationed  in  12,835  places.  Besides  these,  there 
were  in  1891,  20,855  agents  of  police,  guardians  of  pris- 
ons, &c.  The  total  number  of  prisons  in  1890  was  167. 
They  seem  to  be  growing  less,  for  in  1885  there  were  202. 
The  total  number  of  thefts  known  in  1890  was  444,561  ; 
of  homicides,  1,124.  At  the  end  of  1S90  there  were  258 
inmates  in  Houses  of  Juvenile  Correction;  and  57.615 
inmates  of  Penitentiaries.  The  prefects  (or  heads  of 
police,  &c.,)  numbered   14,965  in   1891,  with   salaries  of 

;^3,220,533. 

The  Foregn  Ministers  and  Corps  were  48  in  1891  ;  and 
the  Consuls  and  Staffs  numbered  87.  The  staff  of  the 
Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  included  256,  with  salaries 

of  $392, 707- 

In  the  Interior  Department,  the  Minister's  staff  in- 
cluded 1,360,  with  salaries  of  $338,968  in  1891. 

Besides  these  there  are  Boards  for  Civil  Service,  As- 
saying, Appraising,  Immigration,  Passports,  Copyrights, 
Patents,  Parks,  Ports,  Railroads,  Rivers,  Sec,  &c. 

BELIEF  AND  CHARITIES. 

Like  everything  else  in  Japan,  the  administrative  regu- 
lation in  the  way  of  Relief  is  most  carefully  managed 
and  organized.  There  are  most  numerous  Charity  Bu- 
reaus and  Dispensaries.  The  Homes  for  the  needy  in- 
clude special  provision  for  the  Aged,  Orphans,  Idiots, 


158 

Sailors,  and  Soldiers.  There  were  214  Public  General 
Hospitals  in  1890.  (Also  363  private  hospitals.)  5,431 
Infants  were  rescued  and  cared  for  in  special  Hospitals 
at  an  expense  of  $28,761  in  1890.  19  Military  Hospitals 
had  an  average  of  49,68 1  inmates  per  day  in  1890  ;  and  3 
Marine  Hospitals  had  an  average  of  4,675  inmates  per 
day  in  1891,  In  the  various  Houses  of  Refuge  there 
were  1,829  inmates  at  the  end  of  1890. 

The  State  has  a  department  for  the  Loan  of  Imple- 
ments. In  1890-91  it  loaned  farm  tools  to  12,263  families 
at  an  expense  of  $56,175. 

In  1 890- 1,  it  provided  various  kinds  of  Insurance  as 
follows:  Accident,  $29,566;  Fire,  $127,068;  Marine, 
$88,697;  and  Inundation,  $629,894. 

In  1 89 1  there  were  68  Government  Light  Houses  (and 
77  local  and  private  ones),  besides  innumerable  buoys,  &c. 

In  the  Poor  Houses  during  1890  there  had  been  17,487 
persons,  costing  $128,872.  During  the  year  1890-91, 
38,196  families  had  been  temporarily  housed,  at  an  ex- 
pense of  $166,783.  In  the  same  year  95,797  families  had 
been  aided  with  Farm  Seed  at  an  expense  of  $196,806. 
Tax  Loans  were  granted  to  85,284  families,  amounting  to 
$234,199.  During  the  same  year  the  State  provided 
8,218,835  days'  work  for  the  unemployed,  paying  there- 
for $224,307. 

SANITATION  AND  SAFETY. 

There  is  a  National  Fire  Bureau,  which  reported  15,- 
120  fires,  burning  39,504  habitations  in  1890.  Forestry 
Fountains,  Garbage  Gathering,  General  Health,  Parks, 
Quarantine,  Sanitaries,  Sewerage,  Street  Cleaning,  &c. 
are  under  public  management. 

The  number  of  businesses  required  to  be  registered  is 
enormous,  and  the  statistics  of  social  conditions  and  pro- 
gress which  the  State  is  thus  enabled  to  gain  are  exceed- 
ingly interesting  and  important. 


150 

LEEWxVRD  ISLANDS. 

(west  indies.        BRITISH.) 

AREA,  701  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  127,723  in  1891. 

This  group  of  small  islands  forms  one  of  the  many- 
British  colonies  off  the  east  coast  of  the  American  con- 
tinent. It  is  organized  in  the  usual  way,  and  has  reached 
the  average  stage  of  socialization.  No  special  instances 
of  advacement  in  the  spirit  of  cooperation  are  reported. 
By  thus  speaking,  it  must  not  be  understood  that  there 
exists  no  socialism  there.  We  must  continually  avoid 
this  misconception.  Society  means  cooperation.  Coope- 
ration of  effort  is  socialism.  To  the  extent  that  a  people 
cooperate  for  mutual  benefit  to  that  extent  have  they  a 
socialized  state. 

MASSOWAH. 

(red  sea.       ITALIAN.) 

AREA,  3,110  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  219,600  in  1892. 

This  is  an  Italian  colony  on  an  island  off  the  eastern 
coast  of  Nubia.  The  people  are  of  the  mixed  Arabian 
and  African  type.  They  take  to  civilization  slowly,  hav- 
ing for  centuries  been  accustomed  to  nomadic  and  pre- 
datory life.  Moreover,  the  spirit  of  the  Italian  Govern- 
ment is  not  specially  predisposed  to  that  type  of  social 
moral  action  which  makes  a  state  advance  rapidly.  Be- 
sides the  ordinary  machinery  for  colonial  government, 
there  are  17  mi.  of  Military  Railway  under  State  owner- 
ship. To  this  must  be  added  the  management  of  a  Postal 
Service,  and  382  mi.  of  Telegraph. 

MAURITIUS. 

(INDIAN  OCEAN.       BRITISH  ) 

AREA,  705  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  371,655  in  1S91. 

The  island  of  Mauritius  lies  several  hundred  miles  east 
of  Madagascar  in  the  midst  of  the  Indian  Ocean.     As 


160 

everywhere  on  the  globe,  where  British  subjects  have 
settled,  so  here  we  have  a  thriving  colony  in  an  advanced 
state.  In  1892  the  British  garrison  stationed  here  con- 
sisted of  834  men  (40  of  whom  were  officers).  The  ex- 
pense of  the  garrison  was  ;{^58,2i9,  ^3  of  which  was  borne 
by  the  colony.  The  government  owned  the  92  mi.  of 
Railway  on  the  island.  The  receipts  of  the  Railway  for 
1892  were  1,490,642  rupees;  expenses,  984,025  ;  profits, 
506,617  rupees,  (i  rupee  is  about  25  cents.)  There  is  a 
complete  system  of  Telegraph,  and  an  organized  Postal 
Service.  Various  other  means  of  Distribution  are  under 
public  control.  In  1892  there  were  168  Primary  Schools, 
with  16,457  pupils  ;  2  or  3  High  Schools,  with  313  pupils  ; 
and  I  College,  with  201  students.  The  Government 
grant  for  Education  in  1S93  was  457,040  rupees.  The 
Government  is  through  a  Governor-General,  Council, 
and  various  municipal  elected  authorities. 

MEXICO. 

AREA,  767,005  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  11,642,720  in  1S91. 

The  Republic  of  Mexico  has  been  making  rapid  ad- 
vances in  recent  years.  For  a  very  long  time  it  had 
previously  been  one  of  those  stagnant  Spanish  civiliza- 
tions (or  more  accurately  barbarizations)  which  followed 
in  the  track  of  Spanish  conquest.  But  Spanish  rule 
overdid  itself  It  became  sated  with  the  wealth  and 
luxury  brought  home  by  the  successors  of  Columbus 
and  by  the  extortionate  revenue  collectors.  Wealth  and 
idleness  of  the  ruling  classes  brought  on  decay  of  the 
national  power,  and  the  colonies  beholding  the  trembling, 
tottering  tyrannv  have  ope  by  one  thrown  off  the  yoke 
and  become  independent  republics.  Some  of  them  were 
worse  cursed  than  others.  Of  this  class  was  Mexico. 
It  \\\\\  doubtless  be  long  before  this  naturally  fertile, 
beautiful,  and  prosperous  country  can  entirely  shake  off 
the  ignorance  and  degradation  imposed  upon  it  by  the 
stupid  Spanish  priestcraft. 


IGl 

A  few  facts  regarding  the  socialized  condition.  The 
Regular  Army  in  1893  numbered  36,605  (of  whom  2,270 
were  officers)  ;  the  Militia  numbered  128,397  (1,430  of- 
ficers) ;  and  the  Navy,  490  men  (<S4  officers)  with  2  Port 
Defense  Ships,  4  Cruisers,  and  5  Torpedo  Boats. 

(Railways  are  all  under  private  control,  many  of  them 
unfortunately  owned  by  American  and  English  capitalists. 
There  were  6,900  mi.  in  1893.)  The  Telegraph  is  largely 
in  possession  of  the  State.  In  1893  there  were  altogether 
38,125  mi.  of  line,  with  800  offices.  In  1892  there  were 
1,411  Post-offices  ;  with  receipts  amounting  to  ;^i,  142, 182; 
expenses,  ;^i,2ii,277;  and  deficit,  ;S79,o95.  As  in  all 
other  similar  civilizations,  the  Roads,  Streets,  Harbors, 
and  Bridges  are  public  property. 

There  were  in  1888,  10,726  Primary  Schools,  with 
543,977  pupils;  7,334  Secondary  (1889),  with  412,789 
pupils  ;  Colleges  ;  Law ;  Medical ;  Art ;  Music ;  Techno- 
logical ;  Industrial ;  Agricultural ;  Military  ;  Nautical, 
2  ;  &c.  The  State  paid  in  1889  toward  public  Educa- 
tion, ;^3,5i2,ooo.  There  are  various  other  educational 
instrumentalities  :  such  as  Bureaus  of  Agriculture,  Cen- 
sus, Education,  Meteorology  ;  Libraries,  Museums  ;  &c. 

Government  Irrigation  dates  from  the  early  part  of 
the  1 6th  century. 

The  chief  executive  is  the  President  and  his  Cabinet. 
The  National  Congress  consists  of  a  Senate  of  56  mem- 
bers (elected  for  3  years),  and  a  House  of  Representa- 
tives of  227  members  (elected  for  3  years).  The  other 
socialized  machinery  for  effecting  order  is  rapidly  de- 
veloping. 

MONACO. 

(independent  republic,      north  mediterranean.) 
AREA,  8  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  13,304  in  1S90. 

This  little  nation  has  a  Regular  Army  of  75,  5  of 
whom  are  officers.  It  is  a  completely  equipped  govern- 
ment, carrying  on  the  usual  functions  of  Distribution, 
Education,  Law  and  Order,  S:c. 


1G3 

MONTENEGRO. 

AREA,  3,630  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  236,000  in  18S0. 

This  is  one  of  those  South-eastern  European  Princi- 
palities composed  of  mixed  elements  which  have  not 
made  very  great  progress  socially.  The  number  of  men 
under  arms  regularly  is  about  100.  There  is  a  Reserve, 
or  Militia,  of  36,726.  No  Railways  are  reported.  There 
are  280  mi.  of  Telegraph,  having  15  offices.  The  Gov- 
ernment conducts  the  Postal  Service,  and  there  are  some 
good  carriage  Roads  and  many  bridle  Paths.  Educa- 
tional organization  is  gradually  coming  about.  In  1S89 
there  were  70  Primary  Schools,  with  3,300  pupils  ;  there 
were  2  Higher  schools  ;  and  some  other  kinds. 

MOROCCO. 

AREA,  219,000  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  5,000,000. 

Morocco  is  one  of  those  countries  which  has  scarcely 
reached  the  stage  called  civilized.  It  is  one  of  the  Ori- 
ental Patriarchal  Governments.  Along  with  many 
things  somewhat  socialized  in  character  there  goes  a 
despotism  that  is  utterly  unsocial.  The  principle  of 
socialization  begins  generally,  if  not  always,  in  that  form 
of  cooperation  which  has  for  its  object  the  defense  of  the 
tribe  or  nation.  If  there  is  any  society  at  all,  it  will  be 
found  to  show  itself  in  the  army  or  militia.  In  point  of 
time,  what  we  now  term  the  Militia  is  almost  the  earliest 
socialized  enterprise.  The  Regular  Army  of  the  Sultan 
of  Morocco  numbers  12,400  ;  his  Militia  is  18,000.  The 
people  being  nomadic  as  to  mode  of  life  necessarily  do 
not  engage  in  many  of  those  joint  undertakings  which 
more  complex  civilizations  are  obliged  to  do.  The 
sources  of  life  are  open,  their  wants  are  simpler,  and  life 
among  them  has  little  of  complexity.  Hence  the  charac- 
ter of  the  social  organization  is  strikingly  different  from 
that  of  those  countries  where  Agriculture  and  Manufac- 


turing  are  the  modes  of  life,  and  where  because  of  these, 
the  population  is  concentrated  in  dense  nuclei  of  cities 
here  and  there.  This  does  not,  however,  deny  the  fact 
that  many  times  these  nomadic  communities  have  social- 
istic practices  and  relations.  In  various  instances  they 
practice  a  truly  cooperative  spirit.  Among  themselves 
they  manifest  the  most  brotherly  and  helpful  dispositions 
in  all  the  ways  in  which  their  simple  society  calls  it  forth. 
Toward  foreigners,  of  any  and  every  sort,  their  hostility 
is  of  the  most  unrelenting  and  unmerciful  character. 

There  is  a  Postal  Service  conducted  by  Moorish,  Brit- 
ish and  French  couriers. 

MOZAMBIQUE. 

(PORTUGUES-E.) 
AREA,  261,700  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  1,500,000. 

This  is  an  ICast  African  colony  which  is  rapidly  rising 
into  importance.  Only  a  few  years  ago  it  was  a  wilder- 
ness of  black  savages.  The  Portuguese  administration 
had  built  in  1892,  137  mi.  of  Railway,  and  were  then 
building  210  mi.  more.  The  Post-office  was  under  State 
control,  and  there  were  230  mi.  of  Telegraph  line,  besides 
55  mi.  more  being  built.  Various  other  cor)perative  colo- 
nial enterprises  were  under  way. 

NATAL. 

(SOUTII-EASTERX   AFKICW.       BRITISH.^ 
AREA,  20,460  s(].  mi.  POPULATION,  543,913  in  1S91. 

Natal  is  another  of  those  enterprising  British  colonies. 
In  1892  it  had  a  defensive  Militia  of  1,835,  which  cost 
during  that  year  ^22,915.  There  was  a  Naval  Reserve 
company  of  92  men.  The  Government  was  of  the  usual 
British  colonial  type.  To  reinforce  the  administration 
there  was  a  mounted  Police  Force  of  209  men  in  1S92, 
the  expense  for  the  maintainancc  of  which  was  ;£"3S,664. 


164 

The  State  began  to  assume  the  ownership  of  Railways 
in  i860,  and  in  1892  it  had  399  mi.  The  cost  to  the  end 
of  1892  had  been  ;{^5,82o,4i9.  The  receipts  for  that  year 
were  ;^532,788;  expenses,  ^^365, 704;  profits,  ^^167, 084. 
The  State  was  then  building  100  mi.  more.  There  is  a 
very  progressive  system  of  management.  Improvements 
are  rapidly  introduced,  even  freight  cars  are  provided 
with  vacuum  brakes.  The  Postal  and  Telegraph  Ser- 
vices are  State  affairs.  In  1893  there  were  200  Primary 
Schools,  with  10,449  pupils,  and  2  Secondary,  with  125 
pupils.  The  Government  grant  forthat  year  was  ^^1,958. 
the  greater  part  of  the  expense  being  borne  by  local 
authorities. 

NETHERLANDS. 

(or  HOLLAND.) 
AREA,  12,648  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  4,669,576  in  1S92. 

The  Dutch  are  a  steady,  industrious,  mind-their-own- 
business  kind  of  people.  They  have  not  the  aggressive- 
ness of  the  English,  but  on  the  other  hand  they  lack  the 
vices  of  that  aggressiveness. 

DEFENSE  OF  NATION.  The  Regular  Army  in 
1892  numbered  21,901  (of  whom  1,750  were  officers). 
Militia  numbered  47,099  ;  the  Navy,  10,190  (887  being 
officers),  with  22  Port  Defense  Ships,  88  Cruisers,  23 
Torpedo  Boats,  in  all  133  War  Vessels. 

FINANCE.  The  Bank  of  the  Netherlands  is  a  private 
corporation,  but  is  under  strict  State  restrictions,  and  is 
by  law  the  State  Cashier.  There  is  a  system  of  Postal 
Savings  Banks  which  had  319,106  depositors,  and  ^5,- 
857,074  deposited  at  the  end  of  1891.  The  receipts  from 
the  Customs  Department  in  1893  were  5,736,250  guilders  ; 
from  the  Internal  Revenue  Department  44,665,000  guil- 
ders. The  State  Lotteries  alone  netted  661,500  guil- 
ders. The  Government  controls  Coinage,  Note  Issue, 
Tax  Collecting,  &c.  In  1893  the  National  Debt  was 
1,122,200,443  guilders. 


165 

DISTRIBUTION.  The  facilities  of  this  kind  are  very 
largely  under  State  control.  The  following  figures,  all 
for  1S92,  are  instructive.  There  were  1 7,473  nii.  of 
Roads,  besides  Streets,  Bridges,  Markets,  Wharves  and 
Harbors.  The  municipalities  owned  598  mi.  of  Street 
Railways,  producing  a  revenue  of  3,997,000  guilders. 
The  State  owned  9S6  mi.  of  Railway  which  had  cost  at 
the  end  of  1892,  262,674,000  guilders.  For  that  year  the 
receipts  were  19,743,000  guilders  ;  expenses,  18,896,000; 
profits,  847,000  guilders.  In  1S93  the  profits  on  the  State 
Railways  were  3,945,000  guilders.  (Under  private  own- 
ership there  were  853  mi.)  The  Netherlands  have  3,000 
mi.  of  Navigable  Rivers  and  inlets,  and  1,907,190  mi.  of 
Canal.  The  receipts  from  the  Post-office  in  1S92  were 
7, 1 84,090  guilders  ;  expenses,  5,685,362  ;  profits,  1,488,718. 
The  State  Telegraph  line  reached  3,398  mi.,  with  12,098 
mi.  of  wire,  and  473  offices.  Its  receipts  in  1892  were 
i.353>924    guilders;    expenses,    1,881,580;    and    deficit, 

527.55^- 

EDUCATION.  The  system  of  Public  Instruction  is 
comprehensive  and  excellent  In  1S92,  there  were  993 
Kindergartens,  with  3,300  teachers  and  102,608  pupils; 
4,292  Primary  Schools,  with  18,248  teachers  and  659,102 
pupils;  III  High  Schools,  with  1,355  teachers  and  12,479 
pupils;  29  Colleges,  with  428  instructors  and  2,567  stu- 
dents; 4  Universities,  with  166  professors  and  2,828  stu- 
dents; Normal;  Law;  Medical;  Theological;  Music, 
Art;  I  Technological,  with  24  instructors  and  245  stu- 
dents ;  Industrial ;  3  Agricultural ;  3  Military;  1 1  Nautical, 
with  59  instructors  and  359  Marines;  i  Blind;  and  3 
Deaf  and  Dumb.  In  1S91  the  General  Government  paid 
toward  Education  ;g7,228,4io.  The  State  provides  num- 
erous other  educational  means,  such  as  Bureaus  of  Agri- 
culture, Census,  Education,  Meteorology;  Art  Galleries  ; 
Botanic  and  Zoological  Gardens  ;  Libraries  ;  Museums ; 
Theatres,  &c. 

PRODUCTION.  The  Government  has  made  Irriga- 
tion possible,  almost  everywhere,  by  means  of  its  exten- 


166 

sive  Canals  and  Waterways.  The  Coal  mines  are  a  State 
monoply,  and  in  1S92  produced  56,840,000  kilos.,  with 
receipts  amounting  to  249,370  guilders;  expenses,  135- 
796;  and  profits,  103,574. 

LAW  AND  ORDER.  The  administration  is  in  the 
hands  of  the  Queen,  8  Ministers,  and  a  State  Council  of 
14.  The  National  Parliament  consists  of  a  First  Cham- 
ber of  50  members  (elected  for  9  years  by  the  Provincial 
States),  a  Second  Chamber  of  100  members  (elected  for 

4  years).  There  are  11  Provinces,  and  1,123  Communes, 
each  having  autonomous  powers.  The  police  force  num- 
bered 1,530  (of  whom  602  are  mounted).  There  is  High 
Court  of  Appeals,  5  Second  Courts,  23  District  and  106 
Cantonal  Courts.  Of  Prisons,  there  are  46  Jails,  3 
Houses  of   Juvenile  Correction,    31    Reformatories  and 

5  Penitentiaries.  The  general  and  municipal  legal  mach- 
inery is  of  the  most  elaborate  order. 

The  provisions  for  the  Relief  and  general  Safety  are 
very  considerable. 


NEWFOUNDLAND. 

(BRITISH.) 
AREA,  162,200  .sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  202,040. 

The  colony  of  Newfoundland  includes  the  territory  of 
Labrador.  It  has  been  considered,  to  a  great  extent,  a 
vast,  bleak  and  dreary  waste.  This  is  not  true.  Under 
the  cooperative  stimulation  of  the  General  Government 
it  would  easily  become  a  colony  of  considerable  impor- 
tance. It  sustains  a  British  garrison  and  its  own  Home 
Militia.  The  Government  owned  the  311  mi.  of  Railway 
existing  at  the  end  of  1S92  ;  also  944  mi.  of  Telegraph  ; 
it  has  a  Postal  System ;  a  regularly  constituted  Govern- 
ment, and  the  beginnings  of  a  system  of  Education.  In 
1891  there  were  547  Primary  Schools,  with  32,339  pupils, 
for  which  the  General  Government  grant  was  $129,200. 


167 

NEW  GUINEA. 

(P.RTTISH.) 

AREA,  about  90,000  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  about  350,000. 

The  large  island  of  New  Guinea  has  been  portioned 
out  between  the  Dutch  and  English  governments.  It 
was  aboriginally  peopled  by  one  of  the  most  degraded 
races  on  the  globe.  The  climate  is  intensely  hot  and 
malarial.  Hence  the  propects  for  an  early  development 
of  a  progressive  civilization  are  very  poor.  Great  pro- 
gress may  not  be  expected  until  a  sufficient  number  of 
people  from  the  mother  countries  have  become  acclima- 
ted to  form  a  working  basis.  Nothing  can  be  expected 
from  the  natives,  except  so  far  as  amalgamation  of  pop- 
ulation takes  place.  At  present  it  is  largely  a  trading 
post,  with  such  regulations  as  are  indispensable  for  the 
conduct  of  greedy  business  relations. 

NEW  SOUTH  WALES. 

(AUSTRALIA.       BRITISH.) 
AREA,  310,700  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  1,197,650  in  1892. 

DEFENSE  OF  NATION.  In  addition  to  the  regu- 
lar British  garrison,  there  was  a  regular  Home  Force  of 
625  men,  a  Militia  of  9,-?4i,  and  a  Navy  of  694,  the  total 
cost  for  the  year  being  £248,^06.  ■ 

FINANCE.  There  is  a  State  Savings  Bank  with  15 
branches.  The  head  office  is  at  Sidney.  The  Governor 
of  the  colony  is  President  of  the  institution.  It  had  in 
1892,  167,726  depositors,  with  ^■5, 706,081  deposited  at 
the  end  of  the  year.  There  are  also  Post-office  Savings 
Banks.  The  Government  conducts  the  Coinage  in  a 
Royal  Branch  Mint.  It  has  charge  of  the  Note  Issue, 
Customs  and  Internal  Revenue  Departments,  &c. 

DISTRIBUTION.  In  1S92  there  were  39,113  mi.  of 
State    Roads.      The    municipalities   owned    419    mi.    of 


168 

Street  Railway,  which  had  cost  ;^i, 118,471.  The  Gen- 
eral Government  began  to  assume  Railway  ownership  in 
1855,  and  at  the  end  of  1893  it  had  2,351  mi.  These  had 
cost  ;{J^33,456,496.  The  receipts  for  1893  were  £1,122^- 
423;  expenses,  ;^i, 250,099  ;  profits,  ;^  1,972,344.  (Only 
81  mi.  of  Railway  were  under  private  ownership.  These 
had  cost  ;^438,S4i.)  There  were  1,423  Post-offices  in 
1893,  the  receipts  from  which  had  been  ^447,945  ;  ex- 
penses, ;^447,726 ;  profits,  £2\g.  The  Money  Orders 
drawn  amounted  to  ;^i,762,7i3.  The  State  owned  in 
that  year  26,443  rn'-  of  Telegraph  wire,  which  had  cost 
x^8oi,9i8.  The  receipts  were  ^"203,417  ;  expenses, 
;^269,79o  (including  Telephone)  ;  and  profits,  ;,^  185,0 14 
(including  Telephone).  The  State  owned  303  mi.  of 
Canal.  Streets,  Bridges,  Harbors,  Markets,  Wharves,  &c. 
must  be  added. 

EDUCATION.  In  1S92  there  were  2,488  Primary 
Schools  and  236  Secondary,  having  4,636  teachers  and 
210,641  pupils  ;  243  Roman  Catholic  Primary,  with  1,268 
teachers  and  31,217  pupils  ;  i  University,  with  44  instruc- 
tors and  1,068  students  ;  Law  ;  Medical  ;  Art ;  i  Tech- 
nological, with  6,205  students  ;  2  Industrial,  with  562 
students  ;  and  Blind  and  Deafand  Dumb  Schools  having 
99  pupils.  The  Government  grant  in  1892  for  Primary 
and  Secondary  education  was;i^768,395.  The  public  Li- 
brary at  Sidney  contains  97,348  volumes.  Other  educa- 
tional facilities  may  be  inferred. 

LAW  AND  ORDER.  At  the  head  of  the  adminis- 
tration is  the  Governor  appointed  by  the  English  Crown. 
The  National  Parliament  has  2  houses:  the  Legislative 
Council  of  70  members  (appointed  by  the  Governor 
for  life),  the  Legislative  Assembly  of  141  members 
(elected  for  3  years).  The  latter  receive  salaries  of 
£2,^0  a  year.  There  are  165  Districts  and  many  Muni- 
cipalities. The  Police  Force  numbered  1,665  ^^  1891. 
There  is  a  Supreme  Court,  various  Circuit,  Quarter 
Sessions,  and  Magistrates  Benches.    The  Prisons  include 


169 

Police  Stations,  60  Jails,  and  Penitentiaries.  There  are 
Jury  Commissioners  and  Juries.  Other  legal  machinery 
in  great  variety.     (See  New  Zealand.) 

In  the  way  of  Production  and  La«^  ownership,  it  must 
not  be  omitted  that  the  State  owns  130,309,466  acres  of 
pastural  land  which  it  leases  to  tenants,  and  97,712  acres 
distributed  in  21  State  Forests,  for  the  care  of  which 
there  is  a  Forest  Conservation  Department. 

NICARAGUA. 

(CENTR.\L  .\MERICA.) 
AREA,  49,500  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  312,845  in  1SS9. 

This  is  another  of  those  hot-blooded  Spanish  Ameri- 
can republics.  There  is  in  these  a  sort  of  constant  sur- 
prise that  the  form  of  government  should  be  Republican 
while  the  general  education  is  in  such  backward  state. 

The  Regular  Army  contains  about  1,200  men,  and  the 
Militia  a  possible  force  of  15,000,  The  State  owns  all  of 
the  91  mi.  of  Railway,  The  cost  of  this  at  the  end  of 
1891  had  been  1^2,700,000.  There  were  53  Post-offices  in 
189 1  ;  and  59  Telegraph  offices  connecting,  1,700  mi.  of 
line.  The  report  in  1887  shows  213  Primary  teachers, 
having  13,660  pupils  ;  3  Secondary  Schools  ;  and  2  Col- 
leges. The  State  supports  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
The  administration  is  by  a  President  and  Cabinet.  The 
National  Congress  has  2  houses:  a  Senate  of  18  mem- 
bers (elected  for  6  years),  and  a  House  of  21  represen- 
tatives (elected  for  4  years). 

NORWAY. 

AREA,  124,445  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  1,988,674  in  1890. 

Norway  and  Sweden  are  parts  of  one  empire.  Nor- 
way has  its  own  Parliament  but  the  general  administra- 
tion is  under  the  Swedish  Crown.  The  Storthing  (or 
Parliament)  has   114  members  (elected  for  3  years).     It 


170 

has  2  divisions  :  the  Lagthing  (one-fourth  of  the  mem- 
bers) and  the  Odelsthing  (three-fourths).  (For  the  rest 
of  the  Law  and  Order  organization,  see  Sweden.) 

The  Regular  Army  in  1S92  contained  30,900  men  ;  the 
Navy  525,  with  5  Port  Defense  Ships,  18  Cruisers,  8  Tor- 
pedo Boats,  in  all  31  War  Vessels.  There  is  a  Naval 
Reserve  of  about  23,000  men. 

The  means  of  Distribution  are  very  largely  under  pub- 
lic control.  The  State  began  to  assume  ownership  in 
Railways  in  1854.  In  1893  it  owned  929  mi.;  while  pri- 
vate companies  owned  but  42  mi.  The  Railways  were 
constructed  partly  by  public  subscription.  The  receipts 
in  1893  were  7,390,875  kroner;  expenses,  5,924,545  kr.  ; 
profits,  1,466,330  kr.  ;  (a  kroner  is  about  27  cts.)  The 
Telegraph  line  belonging  to  the  State  covered  4,887  mi. 
with  9,663  mi.  of  wire,  and  178  offices  in  1893.  The  re- 
ceipts for  that  year  were  ^69,061  ;  expenses,  ;!^66,383  ; 
profits,  ;^2,678.  (There  were  9S5  mi.  more  of  Telegraph 
line  on  railroads  partly  State  and  partly  private.)  The 
Post-office  receipts  for  1893  were  ;^i73,9i6;  expenses, 
;^  172,867  ;  profits,  ;^  1,049.  There  were  about  14,000  mi. 
of  Roads,  and  about  100  mi.  of  Canals.  The  Streets, 
Harbors,  Wharves,  Bridges  and  Markets  belong  to  the 
public. 

The  reports  for  1889  show  6,251  Primary  Schools, 
with  208,960  pupils;  82  High  Schools,  with  10,368  pu- 
pils ;  I  University  (which  had  in  1S92)  54  professors  and 
1,366  students  ;  6  Normal,  with  321  students  ;  Law  ;  Medi- 
cal ;  Industrial,  &c.  In  1891  the  State  grant  was  9,705,- 
329  kroner. 

The  State  owns  3,870  sq.  mi.  of  Forests,  and  has  a  re- 
gular staff  for  overseeing  it. 

ORANGE  FREE  STATE. 

AREA,  48,326  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  207,503  in  1890. 

This  is  rapidly  rising  colony  in  Southeastern  Africa. 
Its  Defensive  force  in  1S90  consisted  of  57  Regulars  and 


171 

300  Militia.  The  State  owned  120  mi.  of  Railway,  and 
was  then  engaged  in  building  several  lines.  There  are 
Roads  for  ox-wagons  in  all  parts.  The  Telegraph,  i  500 
mi.,  was  State  property.  The  receipts  for  the  Post  and 
Telegraph  in  1S90  were  ;^22,-ooo;  expenses,  £2^,(i\2. 
There  is  a  Public  Library  at  Bkemfountain.  The 
State  assists  all  churches  to  a  small  extent.  In  1893  the 
Government  grant  to  the  Dutch  Reformed,  Wesleyan, 
ICpiscopalian,  Lutheran,  Roman  Catholic  and  Jewish  was 
;^9,ooo.  There  were  134  Primary  Schools  and  45  Secon- 
dary, with  4,795  pupils.  (Others  not  reported.)  The 
Government  grant  in  1893,  for  Education,  was  ^34,500. 
Other  educational  means  are  coming  into  being.  The 
Volksraed  (Parliament)  consists  of  i  Chamber  of  50 
members  (elected  for  4  years).  Irrigation  is  conducted 
by  the  municipalities,  aided  at  the  start  with  Government 
loans. 


PARAGUAY. 

AREA,  98,000  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  480,000  in  1S93. 

The  Regular  Army  numbered  1,427  (82  being  officers); 
and  the  Navy  consisted  of  3  Port  Defense  Ships.  The 
Railways,  150  mi.  in  1891,  are  one  half  owned  by  the 
Paraguay  government  and  the  other  half  by  English 
capitalists.  In  1891,  there  were  502  employees  ;  ^17,807 
receipts  ;  ;^i5,945'  expenses  ;  ;^  1,862  profits.  The  State 
owned  210  mi.  of  Telegraph  Line  ;  and  had  69  Post-offices 
in  1892.     The  Postal  receipts  were  26,290  pesos. 

P^ducation  is  backward.  In  1891  there  were  292  Pri- 
mary Schools  with  44S  teachers  and  18,944  pupils  ;  about 
100  Higher  schools  ;  i  College,  with  15  instructors  and 
150  students.  The  State  grant  in  1891  was  $314,615. 
The  State  Church  is  Roman  Catholic.  There  arc  pub- 
lic Libraries,  Museums,  &c. 

The  form  of  government  is  republican.  At  the  head 
stands  the  President  and  Cabinet.     The  National  Congress 


172 

has  a  Senate  of  30  members  (elected  for  4  years),  and  a 
Chamber  of  55  Deputies  (elected  for  4  years).  Much 
other  socialized  machinery  is  implied. 


PERSIA. 

AREA,  628,000  sq.  mi.     POPULATION,  about  9,000,000  in  1891. 

In  the  way  of  Defense  there  is  a  standing  army  of 
24,500  men,  a  Militia  of  53,520,  and  a  Navy  of  2  Port 
Defense  Ships.  The  habits  of  the  people  are  very 
largely  nomadic  and  therefore  the  social  organization 
is  loose  in  character  ;  and  the  State  is  scarcely  out  of 
the  state  of  barbarism.  There  are  26  mi.  of  Railway 
under  private  ownership.  182  mi.  of  Road  are  reported 
as  fit  for  carriages.  There  is  a  Postal  Service  with  95 
offices  run  by  an  Austrian  company  in  Persian  employ. 
3,400  mi.  of  Telegraph  are  worked  by  the  Persian  gov- 
ernment;  675  more  miles  are  worked  by  the  English 
government;  and  415  miles  by  companies.  Education 
is  under  Mohammedan  supervision.  The  elementary 
sort  is  widely  diffused,  and  there  are  a  great  number  of 
socalled  Mohammedan  colleges  supported  by  public 
funds.  There  is  a  Technological  school  in  Teheran 
(opened  40  years  ago)  which  has  some  European  pro- 
fessors. 2  Military  schools  are  also  reported.  The  Shah 
is  regarded  as  the  Viceregent  of  the  Prophet,  although 
Mohammedanism  is  steadily  losing  its  hold. 

The  government  is  an  absolute  despotism.  The  laws 
are  based  on  the  precepts  of  the  Koran.  It  is  administ- 
ered by  the  Shah  and  his  8  Ministers  and  their  deputy 
governors.  The  social  development  has  not  proceeded 
far  enough  to  differentiate  the  legislative  judicial  and 
executive  functions.  The  dispensation  is  too  summary 
to  make  Prisons  and  much  other  legal  machinery  ne- 
cessary. 


173 

PERU. 

AREA,  463,747  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  2,700,945  in  1S90. 

The  Regular  Army  has  5,900  men  ;  and  the  Navy,  2 
Port  Defense  Ships  and  i  Cruiser.  The  State  owned  770 
mi.  of  Railway  in  1S92  (private  companies  owned  122 
miles).  The  cost  to  the  State  had  been  ;^36, 000, coo  (in- 
cluding those  railways  ceded  to  Chili).  The  State  also 
owns  lines  of  Steamboats.  The  receipts  for  both  in  1892 
were  ^348,500;  expenses,  ^215.000  ;  profits,  ^133,500. 
It  also  received  ;^3,247  from  lines  of  Railway  leased. 
The  number  of  Post-offices  w^ere  314,  and  Telegraph 
offices  2)^,  with  i,oSo  mi.  of  line  in  1893.  The  Roads, 
Streets,  Harbors,  Wharves,  Bridges,  Markets,  &c.,  are 
public  property. 

The  Educational  report  is  for  1S90,  and  mentions  810 
teachers  in  Primary  Schools  with  53,276  pupils;  51 
Higher  schools  ;  5  Colleges  ;  Law  ;  Medical ;  Theologi- 
cal;  Technological,  &c.  The  State  grant  in  1890  was 
;^303,58i.  The  State  religion  is  Roman  Catholic,  but 
others  are  tolerated,  though  against  the  written  law. 
Much  other  imperfect  educational  machinery  exists. 

The  Government  is  republican,  having  a  President, 
Cabinet,  and  National  Congress.  The  latter  consists  of 
40  Senators  (elected  for  5  years),  and  So  members  of  the 
House  of  Representatives  (elected  for  6  years).  These 
are  supplemented  by  Courts,  Police,  Prisons,  and  the 
various  Assessing  and  Registering  officers. 

PHILIPPIA'E  ISLAjS'DS. 

(SPANISH.) 
AREA,  114,326  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  about  7,000,000. 

The  progress  of  civilization  in  these  islands  has  been 
very  slow,  and  for  2  reasons  :  first,  because  of  the  density 
on  the  part  of  the  natives,  and  next,  because  of  the  lack 
of  enterprise  on  the  part  of  the  Spanish.     There  is  an 


174 

organized  government  under  the  Spanish  administration, 
and  local  provinical  autonomy  by  the  natives.  There 
are  some  towns  and  cities  of  loosely  governed  character, 
which  own  their  Streets,  Markets,  &c.  Education  is 
backward  and  can  scarcely  be  said  to  be  organized. 

PORTO  RICO. 

(SPANISH.) 

AREA,  3,550  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  806,708  in  1S92. 

In  1892,  12  mi.  of  Railway  were  reported  as  belonging 
to  the  Government,  also  470  mi.  of  Telegraph.  There  is 
an  organized  Post-office,  The  Roads,  Streets,  Harbors 
and  Bridges  are  public  property.  Education  is  largely 
under  the  control  of  the  Catholic  church,  and  this  also 
receives  State  assistance.  The  Government  is  of  the 
Spanish  colonial  type.  There  is  a  Governor  Captain- 
General.  The  people  elect  representatives  to  the  Span- 
ish Cortes.  The  colony  is  in  many  respects  similar  to 
Cuba,  and  its  socialization  is  in  the  same  condition,  so 
far  as  the  Spanish  administration  is  concerned  ;  but  the 
people  are  less  progressive  and  have  less  of  the  love  for 
freedom,  taken  as  a  whole. 

PORTUGAL. 

AREA,  34,038  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  4,708,178  in  1881. 

Portugal  is  one  of  those  countries  of  which  the  world 
at  large  hears  little.  This  is  to  a  great  extent  caused  by 
the  extremely  prevalent  illiteracy  of  the  people,  which  in 
1S78  exceeded  82  %  of  the  population. 

A  large  and  useless  Standing  Army  is  maintained.  In 
1S92  it  numbered  34,971  (of  which  2,346  were  officers). 
The  Navy  had  4,113  men  (213  being  officers).  There 
were  31  Cruisers,  and  9  Torpedo  Boats.  The  good 
Roads  cover  about  2,000  mi.  Streets,  Bridges,  Har- 
bors,   Wharves    and    Markets    are    public.       The    State 


175 

owned  in  1S91,  505  mi.  of  Railway.  (Private  com- 
panies owned  829  mi.,  all  receiving  subventions  from 
the  State.)  The  Government  first  undertook  Railway 
management  in  1863.  It  owned  in  1889,  3,985  mi.  of 
Telegraph,  with  8,839  mi.  of  wire  and  366  offices.  The 
receipts  for  1891  (including  Postal  Service)  were  6,057,- 
789  fr.  ;  expenses,  7,196,653  fr.  ;  deficit,  1,138,864  fr. 
The  number  of  Post-offices  was  3,091. 

PZducation  is  of  late  advancing.  In  1890  there  were 
3,864  Primary  Schools,  with  181,738  pupils;  175  Adult 
Primary  Schools,  with  6,774  pupils  ;  4^8  Secondary,  with 
95,449  pupils  ;  I  University,  with  75  professors  and  1,166 
students  ;  5  Normal  with  300  students  ;  Law  ;  Medical ; 
18  Theological  (in  1883),  with  2,038  students;  i  Art, 
with  436  students;  2  Technological,  with  566  students; 
25  Industrial,  with  5,695  students  ;  7  Agricultural,  with 
187  students;  2  Military,  with  546  cadets  ;  12  Nautical 
(one  of  which  is  for  Naval  officers  and  has  93  students). 
The  general  Government  expense  in  189 1  was  1,745,506 
milreis.  (One  milreis  equals  4  s.  5  d.,  or  about  ;^i. 07.) 
There  is  a  public  Library  at  Lisbon  with  200,000  vol- 
umes, I  at  Coimbra  with  84,000  volumes,  and  i  at  Oporto 
with  100,000  volumes.  There  are  various  other  Educa- 
tional facilities.  The  State  Church  is  Roman  Catholic, 
and  receives  support. 

One-third  of  the  island  of  Madeira  is  under  Irrigation, 
largely  public.  Some  levados  are  from  60  to  70  mi.  in 
length. 

The  Government  is  constitutional  monarchy.  The 
general  administration  is  by  the  King  and  his  Ministers. 
The  Cortes  has  2  Houses:  that  of  the  Peers  with  162 
members  (consisting  of  the  Princes  of  the  royal  blood, 
12  Bishops,  100  life  Peers  appointed  by  the  Crown,  and 
50  elective  Peers — 45  of  whom  are  chosen  by  the  districts 
and  5  by  scientific  bodies);  and  the  Chamber  of  175 
Deputies  (elected  for  4  years).  The  Police,  Courts,  Pris- 
ons, Consulates,  and  various  Bureaus  are  organized  sim- 
ilarly to  those  of  Spain,  and  employ  large  numbers. 


17() 

QUEENSLAND. 

(AUSTRALIA.       BRITISH.) 
AREA,  668,497  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  421,297  in  1892. 

Queensland  merits  careful  attention  as  a  social  study. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  enterprising  of  British  colonies. 
The  energies  of  the  people  in  the  function  of  the  State 
are  directed  in  the  most  useful  ways. 

The  Regular  Armed  Force  in  1892  numbered  only 
140;  the  Militia,  only  4,506;  and  the  Navy  had  but  3 
Port  Defense  Ships  and  i  Torpedo  Boat.  There  is  a 
Government  Savings  Bank,  with  123  branches,  having 
47,093  depositors,  and  ^1,708,393  deposited  at  the  end 
of  1S92.  The  State  still  owns  nearly  all  of  the  land, 
only  2  %  (or  10,576,268  acres)  of  the  total  area  had 
been  alienated  in  1891.  During  that  year  it  leased  for 
pasturage  280,535,893  acres.  Over  140,000,000  acres 
more  were  leased  for  agricultural  purposes.  There  is 
a  settled  policy  of  preventing  aggregations  in  large 
estates. 

Railway  ownership  was  undertaken  by  the  Govern- 
ment in  1865.  It  now  owns  all  the  Roads,  and  permits 
no  private  lines.  In  1892  there  were  2,353  mi.,  and  53 
mi.  more  being  built.  The  cost  of  the  Roads  then  built 
had  been  ;!^i6,258,993.  For  1892  the  receipts  were 
;^i,04i,222  ;  expenses,  ^632,321  ;  profits,  ;^4oS,9oi.  The 
Telegraph  is  likewise  all  owned  by  the  Government.  In 
1892  there  were  9,996  mi.  of  line  with  17,646  mi.  of  wire, 
and  354  offices.  The  receipts  were  ;^82,952  ;  expenses, 
j^ii2,99i  ;  deficit,  ^30,039.  The  number  of  Post-offices 
in  1892  was  951,  with  receipts  of  ;!ri35,723  ;  expenses, 
_;^2oi,82i  ;  deficit,  ^,^66, 098.  The  enterprise  of  the  Gov- 
ernment is  shown  in  the  provision  of  these  great  requi- 
sites in  advance  of  a  demand  large  enough  to  pay  the 
expenses.  Various  other  means  of  Distribution,  such  as 
Roads,  Streets,  Tramways,  Bridges,  &c.  belong  to  the 
State  or  municipalities. 


177 

The  Primary  Schools,  in  1S92,  numbered  657,  with 
1,498  teachers  and  64,563  pupils;  the  Secondary,  10, 
with  57  teachers  and  793  pupils.  There  are  Colleges, 
Technological,  and  other  schools.  The  Government 
grant  for  1892  was  ;^25 1,683. 

The  general  administration  is  by  the  Governor  (appoint- 
ed by  the  Imperial  Government),  and  8  Ministers.  The 
Legislation  is  by  2  Houses  :  a  Council  of  40  members 
(nominated  by  the  Crown,  for  life),  and  the  Assembly  of 
72  members  (elected  for  5  years).  There  were  900  Police 
in  1891.  The  different  types  of  Courts  included  Supreme, 
District,  and  Magistrate.  The  Prisons  included  16  Jails, 
and  a  Penitentiary,  The  other  machinery  for  carrying 
on  a  well-regulated  state  is  not  wanting.  vSo  too,  the 
various  public  institutions  for  Relief  and  General  Safety. 


ROUMANIA. 

AREA,  48,307  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  5,800,000  in  1893. 

Roumania  had  in  1893  a  Regular  Army  of  51,771  men 
(2,936  officers);  a  Militia  of  81,843  ;  and  a  Navy  of  1,526 
men,  with  8  Port  Defense  Ships,  i  Cruiser,  and  2  Tor- 
pedo Boats.  There  was  a  small  Naval  Reserve  of  200 
men.  The  State  owns  all  its  Railways,  which  in  1S93 
covered  1,598  mi.  340  mi.  more  were  being  built.  It 
has  1,100  mi.  of  Navigable  Rivers  and  Canals.  The 
people  own  the  Telegraph,  which,  in  1892,  had  3,524 
mi.  of  line,  8,000  mi.  of  wire,  411  offices,  and  took 
receipts  amounting  to  2,498,919  fr.  There  were  352 
Post-offices  in   1892,  with  receipts  of  3,650,123  fr. 

Education  is  advancing.  In  1891  there  were  3,566 
Primary  Schools,  with  3,584  teachers  and  220,683  pupils  ; 
52  Secondary,  with  10,227  pupils;  2  Universities,  with 
no  professors  and  900  students;  8  Normal,  with  770 
students ;  Law ;  Medical,  &c.  The  Government  is  a 
Constitutional  Principality.  The  National  Legislation 
is  through  a  Senate  of  120  members  (elected  for  8  years), 


178 

and  a  Chamber  of  1S3  Deputies  (elected  for  4  years.) 
Further  statistics  are  difficult  to  obtain,  and  yet  it  is 
easily  seen  that  there  must  be,  besides  these,  a  vast 
amount  of  public  enterprise. 

RUSSIA. 

AREA,  8,660,282  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  126,000,000  in  1892. 

The  Russian  Government  comprehends  more  territory 
than  any  other  in  the  world.  Russia  is  an  anomaly.  One 
does  not  think  of  absolute  monarchy  as  out  of  place  in 
China.  The  Chinese  have  brought  their  creed  and  cus- 
toms out  of  the  hoary  ages  of  the  past.  But  Russia  is 
a  modern  nation.  It  has  grown  up  in  what  may  be  called 
very  recent  times.  There  are  within  its  realm  a  large 
number  of  intelligent  and  cultured  people.  How  the 
iron  hand  of  despotism  can  yet  hold  sway  is  difficult  to 
explain.  The  great  absolute  powers  of  the  past  have 
occupied  themselves  in  enterprises  of  military  aggression 
and  conquest.  This  great  Russian  anachronism  (although 
it  is  military  to  a  fault)  is  spending  immeasurable  efforts 
in  the  direction  of  social  reorganization  and  paternalistic 
socialization.  It  seems  bound  to  keep  up  with  the  times 
without  doing  the  one  thing  which  distinguishes  these 
times  from  all  others,  viz  :  the  development  of  democratic, 
political  and  economic  institutions.  More  than  any  other 
country,  Russia  illustrates  a  type  of  socialism  which 
comes  from  the  wrong  direction.  Every  institution  is 
the  result  of  paternalistic  governmental  care,  and  not  the 
outcome  of  spontaneous,  democratic,  cooperative  initia- 
tion. In  order  to  keep  all  the  great  advantages  in  the 
hands  of  the  aristocracy  who  rule,  and  at  the  same  time 
to  keep  the  nation  as  a  whole  in  association  with  the 
more  progressive  countries,  they  introduce  measure  after 
measure  which  belong  to  a  state  of  social  freedom. 
Hence  the  facts  which  follow  (as  also  those  given  under 
the    heading  of  similarly    grounded   governments),  are 


179 

instances  of  socialism  in  a  peculiar  sense.  They  have  the 
form,  but  lack  one  of  the  most  vital  elements,  viz  :  they 
are  not  done  by  the  spontaneous  will  of  the  people. 

DEFENSE  OF  NATION.  One  can  hardly  compre- 
hend the  gigantic  character  of  a  social  organization 
which  keeps  under  arms,  as  Russia  did  in  1892,  868- 
762  men  (33,529  of  whom  were  officers).  Its  Militia 
numbered  1,661,899  (21,428  being  officers).  Its  Navy 
had  45,064  (2,364  being  officers),  with  17  Battle  Ships, 
25  Port  Defense  Ships,  59  Cruisers,  159  Torpedo  Boats, 
making  a  total  of  260  War  Vessels. 

FINANCE.  All  financial  institutions  have  existence 
by  virtue  of  Imperial  permission.  The  Government 
manages  a  system  of  Savings  Banks  ;  conducts  a  Coin- 
age exclusively ;  controls  Note  Issue,  collects  Customs, 
and  Internal  Revenue,  &c. 

DISTRIBUTION.  In  1890,  63,000  mi.  of  good  Roads 
were  reported.  In  1891  the  Government  owned  6,824 
mi.  of  Railway,  and  was  then  building  893  mi.,  besides 
the  new  Siberian  line  which  will  be  4,950  mi.,  and  is  ex- 
pected to  be  finished  by  1897.  Private  companies  run 
and  partly  own  11,617  mi.  ;  but  of  these  the  Government 
owns  92  %  of  the  cost  value.  Moreover  the  charters  of 
all  companies  are  terminable  in  from  37  to  85  years, 
after  which  the  roads  revert  to  the  Government.  The 
total  cost  of  all  Russian  Railways  up  to  December  31, 
1892,  was  ^316,887,500.  The  receipts  on  the  Govern- 
ment roads  for  the  year  1891  were  78,130,258  roubles; 
expenses,  46,023,237;  profits,  32,107,021.  (i  rouble 
equals  about  77  cts.)  The  number  of  employes  on  all 
Russian  Railways  in  1891  was  259,719.  In  that  year 
there  were  453  mi.  of  State  Canals,  and  33,463  mi.  of 
Navigable  Rivers.  The  number  of  Post-offices  was  6,55  7. 
The  Government  owns  19-20  and  runs  all  of  the  88,280 
mi.  of  Telegraph  (1891),  having  172,360  mi.  of  wire  and 
3,796  offices.  The  receipts  of  the  Postal  and  Telegraphic 
Service  in  1891  were  30,925.903  roubles;  expenses.  25.219,- 
619;  profits,  5,705,284.     There  were  1,376  mi.  of  Tele- 


180 

phone  wire.  Streets,  Bridges,  Harbors,  Wharves,  Mar- 
kets, &c.,  are  State  property  ;  and  Street  Lighting  and 
many  other  similar  things  are  at  Government  expense. 

EDUCATION.  Although  the  schools  of  Russia  seem 
numerically  considerable,  yet  the  illiterate  condition  of 
the  vast  mass  of  the  people  is  most  deplorable.  In  iS88 
only  1-5  of  the  Army  could  read  and  write.  In  1S92 
only  1.08  %  of  the  population  were  at  school,  while  in 
Germany  18.8  %  were  in  school.  In  the  whole  Empire 
(exclusive  of  Finland)  there  were  only  743  periodicals 
published.  In  Finland  alone  there  were  145.  In  18S7 
there  were  46,880  Primary  Schools,  with  2,243,566  pu- 
pils. In  1 89 1  there  were  702  Secondary  Schools,  with 
4,218  teachers  and  165,594  pupils;  11  Colleges,  with 
190  instructors  and  2,496  students ;  10  Universities, 
with  923  instructors  and  13,259  students;  78  Normal, 
with  822  instructors  and  5,586  students;  i  Medical, 
with  754  students;  4  Theological,  with  127  instruc- 
tors and  761  students;  45  Technological,  with  5,007 
students  ;  i  Agricultural,  with  306  students;  4  Military, 
with  464  cadets;  and  113  Nautical  and  Military,  with 
21,109  students.  The  General  Government  expended  in 
1892,  43,884,534  roubles.  In  addition  to  these,  there  are 
many  public  provisions  for  culture — Libraries,  Museums, 
Observatories,  Art  Galleries,  and  Bureaus  of  different 
kinds. 

LAND.  In  Russia  alone,  there  are  altogether  1,098,- 
517,780  acres.  Of  this  there  belongs  to  the  General  Gov- 
ernment 410,801,867  ;  to  the  Imperial  Family  19,890,835  ; 
to  the  general  Government,  but  leased  to  peasants  373,- 
310,496;  and  to  private  owners  294,504,582  acres.  If 
this  report  is  correct,  the  State  owns  substantially  804,- 
013,198  acres  ;  i.  e.,  in  Russia  alone,  4-5  of  the  land  still 
remains  in  possession  of  the  people.  This  is  a  remark- 
able fact,  and  would  seem  to  indicate  that  as  the  new  age 
of  socialized  enterprise  and  common  social  ownership 
comes  on,  Russia  is  not  likely  to  pass  through  the  stage 
of  completely  disintegrated  individuality  in  ownership. 


181 

The  other  great  realms  of  Law  and  Order,  Relief  and 
Charity,  &c.,  cannot  be  satisfactorily  treated.  Legisla- 
tion that  is  legislation  for  classes,  is  not  socialized,  al- 
though it  may  and  does  employ  its  hundreds  of  thous- 
ands of  agents  for  the  common,  social  regulation.  So 
too,  in  the  realm  of  Public  Relief,  it  is  only  half  publicly 
done.  In  these  various  phases  one  part  of  the  commu- 
nity is  simply  trying  to  preserve  an  unjust  advantage 
with  one  hand  and  to  make  some  amends  therefor  with 
the  other.  They  legislate  for  themselves  and  thereby 
bring  want  and  distress  upon  thousands  ;  and  then  they 
set  up  shabby  institutions  for  the  meagre  relief  of  those 
their  greed  has  pauperized. 

SALVADOR. 

(central  AMERICA.) 
AREA,  7,225  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  777,895  in  1891 

This  little  republic  has  a  Standing  Army  of  4,000  men 
and  a  Militia  of  15,000.  For  a  Navy  it  supports  i  Crui- 
ser. There  are  reported  2,000  mi.  of  good  Roads.  In 
1892  the  State  owned  the  53  mi.  of  Railway  then  existing. 
The  receipts  for  that  year  were  ^191,558;  expenses,  .$131- 
876  ;  profits,  ^59,672,  The  State  managed  54  Post-offices 
in  1892  ;  and  1,467  mi.  of  Telegraph  line,  with  131  offices. 
585  Primary  Schools,  with  29,427  pupils  reported  in  1S93; 
also  13  Secondary;  i  University;  2  Normal;  3  Techno- 
logical ;  Law ;  Medical ;  &c.  The  State  Church  is  Ro- 
man Catholic.  There  are  Libraries,  Museums,  and  other 
provisions  for  Education.  The  President,  Cabinet,  and 
a  National  Congress  of  70  members  are  at  the  head  of 
the  Government. 

SANTO  DOMINGO. 

(west  inhies.) 
AREA,  18,045  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  610,000  in  iSSS. 

This  hot-blooded  little  government  maintains  a  small 
Regular  Army,  Militia  and  Naval  Reserve.      It  has  pro- 


182 

vided  some  good  Roads,  72  mi.  of  Railway,  58  Post- 
offices,  300  Primary  Schools,  some  Secondary,  Collegi- 
ate, Normal,  and  other  educational  means.  There  is  a 
President,  Cabinet  and  Chamber  of  22  Congressmen. 

SERVIA. 

AREA,  19,050  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  2,226,741  in  1S92. 

The  Standing  Army  numbered  18,000  in  1893,  and  the 
Militia,  192,000,  There  are  7  Forts.  3,495  mi.  of  good 
Roads  are  reported.  In  1892  the  State  owned  2,^6  mi. 
of  Railway,  which  had  cost  90,810,703  dinars.  (A  dinar 
equals  i  fr.,  or  about  20  cts.)  The  State  managed  107 
Post-offices  and  143  Telegraph  offices  having  1,942  mi.  of 
line  in  1892.  The  Post  and  Telegraph  receipts  were 
1,035,913  dinars;  expenses,  1,375,457  ;  deficit,  259,544. 
There  are  394  mi.  of  Navigable  River. 

The  reports  for  1892  give  803  Primary  Schools,  with 
1,478  teachers  and  75,278  pupils  ;  26  Secondary,  with  440 
teachers  and  6,422  pupils;  i  University,  with  37  instruct- 
ors and  557  students;  2  Normal,  with  487  students;  i 
Theological,  with  70  students ;  2  Technological ;  Law ; 
Industrial ;  Agricultural ;  Military.  The  General  Gov- 
ernment paid  for  Education  in  1892,  3,923,696  dinars. 
The  State  Church  is  Greek  Orthodox.  To  these  must 
be  added  Libraries,  Museums,  &c.  The  general  admin- 
istration is  by  the  Prince  and  his  Ministers.  The  Par- 
liament (or  Skupshtina)  has  200  members  (elected 
for  3  years).  There  are  800  Police,  various  Courts, 
Prisons,  &c. 

SIAM. 

AREA,  about  300,000  sq.  mi.        POPULATION,  6,000,000  in  1892. 

There  is  a  loosely  organized  Army  of  12,000  and  a 
Navy  of  4  old  Ships,  There  is  no  Public  Debt,  and 
expenses  are  kept  within  the  receipts.     (The  Railways 


183 

are  private.)  A  Postal  Service  with  98  offices  was  repor- 
ted in  1890.  There  is  a  Minister  of  Public  Instruction, 
and  P^ducation  is  being  systematized.  There  are  3  large 
Government  Schools,  and  English  is  taught.  The  State 
has  constructed  many  large  Canals  for  purposes  of  Irri- 
gation. The  sluices  leading  to  the  fields  are  made  at 
private  expense.     The  system  is  very  ancient. 

The  Government  is  a  monarchy  assisted  by  a  Council 
of  State.  This  Council  consists  of  8  Ministers,  6  royal 
princes,  and  from  10  to  20  members  appointed  by  the 
king.     The  king's  successor  is  appointed  by  the  Council. 

SIERRA  LEONE. 

(WKST  AFRICA.       BRITISH.) 

AREA,  15,000  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  iSo.ooo  in  1891 

Besides  the  British  garrison,  there  is  a  Home  Militia 
of  400.  Some  good  Roads,  Navigable  Rivers,  Canals, 
and  Lagoons  aid  in  Distribution.  There  is  a  State  Postal 
Service,  and  some  Cables  are  reported.  In  1892,  85 
Primary  and  6  Secondary  Schools  had  10,500  pupils. 
There  was  i  College.  The  Government  spent  for  Edu- 
cation in  that  year  ^711.  The  Law  and  Order  are  pro- 
vided for  in  the  usual  British  colonial  manner.  There 
are  Supreme,  Circuit  and  Police  Courts,  and  a  Police 
Force  of  500. 

SOUTH  AFRICAN  REPUBLIC. 

(transv.v.vl.) 
AREA,  113,642  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  487.557  >"  1S92. 

This  is  a  newly  formed  Government.  There  is  a  small 
force  of  Militia  Artillery,  The  republic  owns  all  its 
Railway  which  in  1893  covered  200  mi.,  with  213  mi. 
more  building.  The  State  Telegraph  in  1892  had  41 
offices,  1,681  mi.  of  line,  and  174  employes.  There  was 
a  State  Postal  Service.     In  1892,    484  Primary  Schools, 


184 

with  7,932  pupils;  and  13  Secondary,  were  reported. 
;^2o,ooo  were  voted  in  1869  toward  establishing  a  Univer- 
sity, and  ;^34,962  were  spent  that  year  for  general  Edu- 
cation. Dutch  is  the  official  language,  and  English  that 
of  everyday  life. 

There  are  14,000  Government  Farms,  and  16,000  pri- 
vate farms.  Land  is  irrigated  and  leased  by  the  Govern- 
ment.    It  also  furnishes  loans  for  municipal  irrigation. 

The  Parliament  (or  Volksraed)  has  2  Houses  of  24 
members  each  (elected  for  4  years.) 


SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 

(BRITISH.) 
AREA,  903,690  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  320,431  in  1891. 

The  Defense  is  by  a  British  garrison,  a  Home  Militia 
of  2,486  in  1S92,  and  i  Cruiser, 

There  is  a  Government  Savings  Bank  with  139  branches, 
78,795  depositors,  and  ^2,217,431  deposits  at  the  end  of 
1892.  The  National  Debt  in  1891  was  i^2i, 133, 300,  three- 
fourths  of  which  was  for  Railways,  Telegraph  and  Water- 
works. The  Revenues  from  these  are  now  paying  more 
than  the  interest.  The  State  began  ownership  in  Rail- 
ways in  1S56.  In  1S92  it  owned  the  whole  1,810  mi.  The 
cost  to  the  middle  of  1891  had  been  ^^11,398,839.  The 
receipts  for  1S92  were  ^1,223,999;  expenses,  ^^617, 179; 
profits,  ^^606,820.  In  the  same  year  there  were  638  Post- 
offices  ;  5,267  mi.  of  Telegraph  line,  with  12,911  mi.  of 
wire,  and  247  offices.  The  receipts  exceed  expenses, 
after  paying  interest  on  borrowed  capital.  The  reports 
mention  4,737  mi.  of  excellent  Road. 

There  were  597  Primary  Schools  with  53,457  pupils  in 
1892.  The  State  has  recently  endowed  a  University  with 
^50,000  and  50,000  acres  of  land.  There  are  several 
Colleges,  Normal,  Law,  Music  and  other  schools.  The 
State  grant  in  1891  was  ;^453,529- 


185 

At  the  head  of  the  Government  is  the  Governor- Gene- 
ral and  6  Ministers.  The  Parhament  has  2  Houses  ;  a 
Legislative  Council  of  24  members  (elected  in  sections 
every  8  years),  and  a  House  of  Assembly  with  54  mem- 
bers (elected  for  3  years).  There  are  41  counties  and 
S3  municipalities.  The  Courts  include  Supreme,  Circuit, 
Insolvency,  and  68  Magistrate.  Other  socialized  ma- 
chinery can  be  easily  inferred. 


SPAIN. 

AREA,  197,670  .sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  17,565,632  in  18S7. 

The  history  of  Spain  is  one  of  the  darkest  pages  of  the 
past.  At  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages,  it  became  one  of 
preatest  powers  of  Europe.  It  took  the  lead  in  the  mari- 
time discoveries  of  the  i6th  century.  But  the  reaction- 
ary movement  of  the  Church  at  this  time  put  a  blight  on 
the  intellectual  advancement  of  the  nation,  and  it  soon 
lost  its  position  of  greatness.  It  stands  even  yet  at  the 
bottom  of  the  list  in  the  matter  of  progress.  Although 
dominated  by  an  effete  monarchy,  legislated  over  by  a 
greedy  aristocracy,  bound  in  ignorance  and  superstition 
by  a  grasping  hierarchy,  it  still  has  many  socialized 
institutions.  Indeed,  the  reader  must  constantly  remind 
himself  that  all  social  organization  is  to  that  extent  con- 
crete socialism. 

The  Regular  Army  in  1S92  numbered  115,735;  the 
MiHtia,  967,860;  the  Navy,  23,537  (1,007  being  officers), 
with  I  Battle  Ship,  2  Port  Defense  Ships,  65  Cruisers, 
and  40  Torpedo  Boats,  in  all  108  War  Vessels.  There 
were  14,000  mi.  of  first-class  Roads.  (All  the  Railways, 
6,710  mi.,  are  under  private  ownership.  Nearly  all  the 
companies  have  obtained  guarantees  or  subventions  from 
the  Government.)  The  Navigable  Rivers  and  Canals 
reach  1,100  mi.  2,688  Post-offices,  and  1,177  Telegraph 
offices,  with  15,988  mi.  of  line  existed  in  1891. 


18G 

Education  is  relatively  in  a  very  low  state.  In  1SS9, 
61. 1  %  of  the  population  could  neither  read  nor  write. 
The  "better  educated"  press  into  the  literary,  political 
and  religious  careers,  neglecting  industries,  agriculture, 
&c.  Thus  the  nation  is  neglected.  If  done  at  all,  the 
Mines  are  worked,  the  Railways  built,  the  Irrigation 
effected  by  foreign  capital  and  foreign  officials.  Educa- 
tional statistics  are  hard  to  obtain.  The  report  for  18S5 
shows  24,529  Primary  Schools,  with  25,271  teachers,  and 
1)552,534  pupils;  i  inefficient  Higher  School  in  each 
province;  10  Colleges,  under  theological  domination; 
13  Military  ;  and  some  Art,  Music,  and  Agricultural. 
In  that  year  the  General  Government  expended  on 
Education  ;^4,909,48i.  The  State  Church  is  Roman 
Catholic,  and  is  supported  entirely  as  a  Government 
Institution. 

About  2,000,000  hectares  of  Land  are  irrigated,  assist- 
tance  being  rendered  by  the  General  Government.  (The 
total  area  of  Spain  is  50,000,000  hectares  or  133,500,000 
acres.) 

The  form  of  Government  is  constitutional  monarchy, 
but  of  the  most  hidebound  character,  owing  to  its  being 
dominated  through  and  through  by  the  dogmatic  and 
restraining  influences  of  the  Church.  At  the  head  is  the 
King  and  his  Ministers.  The  Cortes  has  2  Houses  ;  a 
Senate  of  360  members  (consisting  of  the  King's  sons 
over  21,  Grandees  having  an  income  of  over  ;^i2,oco, 
Captains,  Generals,  Admirals,  and  100  members  nomi- 
nated by  the  Crown,  and  180  members  elected  by  the 
States,  the  Church,  Universities  and  learned  bodies), 
and  a  Chamber  of  431  Deputies  (elected  for  5  years). 
Mention  should  be  made  of  the  Courts,  Prisons,  Police, 
Consulates,  Embassies,  Assessing  and  other  Boards,  &c. 

There  is  a  vast  number  of  Relief  and  Charitable  insti- 
tutions. These  are  very  largely  under  the  control  and 
management  of  the  Church,  but  the  Church  in  Spain  is 
a  socialized  institution. 


187 

STRAITS  SETTLEMENTS. 

(east  indies.       BRITISH.) 

AREA,  40,600  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  512,342  in  1891. 

This  recently  formed  Ikitish  colony  includes  portions 
of  the  peninsula  of  Malacca  and  neighboring  islands. 
The  British  garrison  is  entrenched  in  a  Fort  which  cost 
;^  100,000.  An  additional  Militia  of  103  men  is  named. 
There  are  Government  Post-offices,  Telegraph,  Road.s, 
Streets,  &c.  192  Primary  Schools,  with  11,310  pupils 
were  reported  in  1892.  The  administration  is  by  Gov- 
ernor and  Executive  Council.  There  were  2,035  Police, 
Magistrate  Courts,  &c. 

SWEDEN. 

AREA,  170,079  s<|.  mi.  POPULATION,  4,806,835  in  1892. 

Sweden  is  in  many  respects  an  important  country  for 
the  student  of  sociology.  Its  monarchy  is  of  the  mildest 
type,  and  the  people  have  a  large  freedom  of  autonomy. 

The  Regular  Army  in  1S92  numbered  38,845  (of  whom 
1,953  were  officers)  ;  the  Militia,  233,708  ;  and  the  Navy, 
16  Port  Defense  Ships,  19  Cruisers,  and  18  Torpedo 
Boats,  in  all   53  War  Vessels.  • 

Financial  provision  is  very  highly'  socialized.  The 
Rix  Bank  belongs  to  and  is  managed  entirely  by  the 
State.  It  is  a  bank  of  exchange,  accepts  deposits,  pays 
interest,  and  lends  money  where  there  is  no  speculative 
object  in  the  borrower's  intention.  Its  assets  in  1891 
were  133,698,185  kronor.  (i  kronor  equals  about  27 
cts.)  The  State  conducts  Postal  Savings  Banks,  which 
at  the  end  of  1891  had  277,540  depositors,  and  16,264,- 
062  kr.  deposited.  The  State  cares  for  Coinage,  Note 
Issue,  Customs,  Internal  Revenue  and  Tax  Collecting. 
The  Government  Poorest  land  in  1SS4  was  valued  at 
;^i  2,000,000. 


188 

The  State  owned  yi  of  the  Railways,  or  1.770  mi., 
in  1892.  (Private  3,484  mi.)  The  State  Railways  cost 
265,069,683  kr.  Its  receipts  in  1891  were  49,130,834  kr.; 
expenses,  30,474,788  kr.  ;  profits,  18,656,046  kr.  The 
Telegraph  lines  in  1891  (including  Railway  companies) 
covered  5,477  mi.  with  14,600  mi,  of  wire.  In  the  same 
year  there  were  37,634  mi.  of  Telepnone  wire  with  24,987 
instruments.  The  annual  rental,  put  up  free  of  cost  and 
connected  with  every  city,  is  ^lo.  (In  America  where 
the  Telephone  was  invented,  but  where  monopolistic 
monarchy  rules,  telephones  rent  for  from  10  to  25  times 
this  amount,  and  with  less  privilege).  The  Post-offices 
in  1891  numbered  2,337,  and  took  in  receipts  amounting 
to  7,513.415  ^r.  ;  expenses,  7.192,363  ^^  I  profits,  321,052 
kr.  There  were  in  1892,  36,000  mi.  of  good  Roads,  264 
mi.  of  Navigable  Rivers,  besides  Streets,  Bridges,  Mar- 
kets, &c. 

Education  is  liberally  provided  for.     There  are  schools 
of  every  kind.     The  reports  for  1890  show  10,702  Primary 
Schools,  with  13,797  teachers  and   692,360  pupils;    103 
Secondary,  with  15,401  pupils;  2  Universities,  with  2,230 
students  (1892);    12   Normal,  with  898  students;  Law 
Medical;   Theological;   Art;    Industrial;   Agricultural 
Domestic  Economy  ;  8  Technological ;  several  Military 
10  Nautical,  with  321  Marines  ;  and  19  Blind,  Deaf  and 
Dumb,   with    8,500   pupils.     On  Elementary  P^ducation 
alone  the  Government  grant  in   1S91  was   13,566,826  kr. 
The  State  also  provides  for  the  support  of  the  Lutheran 
Church,  for  Libraries,  Museums,  Observatories,  Bureaus 
of  various  kinds,  &c. 

By  way  of  Law  and  Order  provision  there  is  a  Parlia- 
ment of  2  Chambers:  the  First  having  147  members 
(elected  by  the  provinces  and  municipalities  for  9  years 
with  no  pay),  the  Second  having  228  members  (elected 
by  general  suffrage  for  3  years,  with  12,000  kronors 
salary).  Each  of  the  24  counties  has  a  Governor  and 
subordinate  officers.  The  King  has  legislative  and  ex- 
ecutive power,  but  his  legislation  must  receive  the  sane- 


189 

tion  of  the  Rigsdad  (Parliament).  The  Council  of  State 
(Statsrad)  has  lo  members,  of  whom  7  are  heads  of  ad- 
ministrative departments.  The  Courts  include  i  Royal 
Supreme,  a  Board  of  Assessors,  a  Board  of  Magistrates, 
206  District,  90  Urban,  and  116  Country.  Then  there 
are  the  Police,  Prisons,  Registering  Boards,  Embassies, 
Consulates,  and  hundreds  of  municipal  enterprises. 

No  data  are  at  hand  regarding  institutions  of  Relief 
and  Charity,  but  Sweden  is  among  the  best. 


SWITZERLAND. 

AREA,  15,976  SCI.  mi.  POPULATION,  2,917,754  in  1S88. 

From  the  point  of  view  of  natural  advantages,  Switzer- 
land is  the  poorest  country  in  P>urope  ;  and  yet  this  little 
inter-mountain  people  have  made  a  social  progress  that 
puts  the  rest  of  Europe  to  shame.  This  very  undesira- 
bleness  of  territory  has  doubtless  proven  the  social  sal- 
vation by  its  unattractiveness  to  the  aristocratic  pirates. 
Not  being  so  badly  oppressed,  and  at  the  same  time  see- 
ing the  dependent  condition  of  the  masses  in  other  Euro- 
pean states,  the  people  of  Switzerland  have  learned  to 
prize  liberty  and  exercise  their  political  freedom  by  the 
development  of  a  model  republic.  Along  with  this  there 
has  gone  on  a  great  progress  in  the  socialization  of  var- 
ious economic  relations,  as  the  following  figures  will 
show. 

DEFENSE.  There  is  really  no  standing  Army.  The 
men  are  called  out  for  yearly  drill,  and  all  men  capable 
of  bearing  arms  belong  either  to  one  or  another  branch 
of  the  so-called  Army.  They  are  divided  into  2  classes  ; 
one,  the  class  under  drill  during  a  stated  number  of 
years  ;  the  other,  the  men  who  have  received  that  drill 
but  who  still  keep  in  practice.  Of  the  first  class  there 
were  in  1892,  131,424  men  ;  and  of  the  second  class, 
81,485.  The  Military  expense  in  1894  is  set  down  in  the 
Budget  at  24,422,491  fr. 


190 

FINANCE.  There  are  State  Banks  in  most  of  the 
Cantons.  Connected  with  the  Post-office  is  a  system  of 
Postal  Savings  Banks.  This  idea  originated  in  Bern  in 
1778.  In  Switzerland,  the  Government  is  professedly 
and  openly  the  owner  of  a  large  amount  of  property. 
This  is  called  the  "Federal  Fortune."  It  consists  in 
domains  of  Forest,  cultivated  Lands,  City  property,  and 
funds.  Its  estimated  value  is  upwards  of  400,000,000  fr. 
Besides  this,  numerous  special  funds,  amounting  to  many 
millions,  are  the  property  of  communes  and  municipal- 
ities. For  example,  that  of  Schaffhausen  is  10,000,000 
fr.,  that  of  Zurich  is  20,000,000  fr.  Every  commune  owns 
some  land,  some  wood,  and  some  water-right.  There 
are  about  300,000  peasant  proprietors  in  a  population  of 
less  than  3,000,000,  28.4  %  of  the  land  is  unproductive. 
The  Forest  area  covers  833,299  hectares,  three-fourths 
of  which  belongs  to  the  State  or  communes.  The  Gen- 
eral Government  has  done  much  toward  aiding  and  stim- 
ulating the  re-creation  of  wasted  Forests.  The  National 
Debt  in  1892  (at  only  3j4  %)  was  64,128,423  fr.  The 
available  Federal  Fortune  was  98,850,758  fr.  Hence 
there  was  a  Net  Fortune  of  34,722,336  fr.  The  State, 
of  course,  has  charge  of  the  Coinage,  Note  Issue,  Cus- 
toms, Internal  Revenue,  Tax  Collecting,  &c. 

DISTRIBUTION.  The  Public  Paths  over  the  moun- 
tains and  through  narrow  valleys  are  very  numerous. 
Many  good  Roads  have  been  built  at  immense  cost,  and 
are  famous  for  their  well-kept  condition  with  no  tolls. 
Municipal  ownership  of  Street  Raihvays  is  coming  about. 
The  City  Council  of  Zurich  has  lately  (1894)  decided  to 
own  and  operate  this  public  convenience.  Geneva  and 
Neufchatel  each  own  small  steam  railways.  The  Fede- 
ral Government  has  bought  the  greater  part  of  the  stock 
in  the  great  Jura-Simplon  Railway,  and  thus  controls  it. 
(Otherwise  the  Railways,  2,105  ^i-  i^i  1892,  are  owned 
by  private  companies.  At  the  end  of  189 1  these  had  cost 
i>oi  7*738, 064  fr.     The  Government  dictates  the  width  of 


101 

track,    strength    of  axles,  lettering   of  cars,    method  of 
keeping  accounts,  way  of  transferring  stock,  &c.,  &c.) 

The  Postal  Service  had  1,491  offices,  and  7,399  em- 
ployes in  1892.  It  sent  in  Money  Orders  386,772,041 
fr.,  and  received  37,760,575  fr.  The  Telegraph  lines  in 
1892  (including  those  for  Railways)  covered  4,515  mi., 
with  1 1,990  mi.  of  wire,  and  1,439  offices.  The  receipts 
for  that  year  (including  Telephone)  were  4,628,145  fr., 
expenses,  3,780,323  fr.;  profits,  847,822  fr.  There  were 
14,369  Telephone  offices.  3,613  mi.  of  line  with  16,660 
mi.  of  wire.  The  State  Postal  System  includes  the  man- 
agement of  numerous  Stage  Coach  lines,  and  a  Parcel 
Post. 

There  are  500  mi.  of  Navigable  Lakes  and  Rivers, 
and  the  Government  has  spent  vast  sums  in  River  Im- 
provement. It  owns  Harbors,  Wharves,  Bridges,  and 
Markets.  Salt  is  sold  by  the  Government  only,  although 
for  the  most  part  produced  by  private  enterprise.  The 
wells  of  Bex  have  been  worked  since  1554. 

EDUCATION.  In  1891  there  were  563  Kindergar- 
tens, with  703  teachers  and  25,202  pupils  ;  3,847  Primary, 
with  9,332  teachers  and  467,596  pupils;  505  Secondary, 
with  2,060  teachers  and  36,550  pupils  ;  7  Colleges  and 
Universities,  with  431  instructors  and  2,758  students; 
38  Normal,  with  368  teachers  and  2,029  students ;  (Law, 
Medical,  and  Theologieal  included  in  Universities);  i 
Technological,  with  703  students  ;  6  Industrial  ;  2  Agri- 
cultural ;  Military ;  Blind  and  Deaf  and  Dumb.  The 
Federal  Government  expense  for  Education  in  1890  was 
;g4,6o9,i25.  Besides  these,  are  many  provisions  in  the 
way  of  Bureaus  of  Agriculture,  Census,  Education, 
Printing,  Geography,  Meteorology,  &c. ;  Libraries  ;  Mu- 
seums ;  Art  Galleries ;  Reading  Rooms ;  Botanical  and 
Zoological  Gardens,  &c. 

PRODUCTION.  Alcohol  is  a  Government  monopoly. 
There  are  64  Distilleries  producingin  1891,  22,773  nietric 
quintals  of  alcohol  valued  at  2,053,586  fr.     The  retailing 


192 

is  mostly  in  private  hands.  The  municipality  of  Basel 
retails  the  high  grade  liquors.  The  total  Government 
receipts  from  the  Distilleries  in  1891  were  13,660,000  fr.  ; 
expenses,  7,830,000  fr.  ;  profits,  5,830,000  fr.  The  State 
owns  a  Cement  Factory,  the  only  Coal  Mine  that  is  pro- 
ductive of  royalty,  a  Slate  Mine  (at  Glarus),  and  manu- 
factures Gzinpowder. 

LAW  AND  ORDER.  The  Government  of  Switzer- 
land is  a  republic  in  which  neither  executive  nor  legis- 
lative officers  have  very  great  control.  The  National 
Executive  consists  of  a  Federal  Council  of  7,  one  of 
whom  is  President.  The  Federal  Assembly  has  2 
Houses  :  the  Staenderath  of  44  members  (2  from  each 
Canton  elected  for  3  years),  and  the  Nationalrath  of 
147  members  (elected  for  3  years).  The  system  of /«z- 
tiative  and  Referendjun  prevails,  and  by  it  the  people  are 
protected  from  political  jobbery.  The  Cantons  and 
Communes  have  each  their  legislative  and  executive 
offices.  Reelections  are  frequent,  and  public  duties  are 
well  performed.  There  are  Civil  and  Criminal  Courts 
for  each  Canton,  a  Supreme  or  Federal  Tribunal  with 
14  judges  and  9  supplementary  judges  (the  salaries  of 
the  President  being  13,000  fr.,  and  of  the  others  12,000 
fr.),  and  2  Commercial,  in  Zurich  and  Geneva.  There 
are  various  grades  of  Prisons,  with  a  total  number  of 
1,317  inmates  at  the  end  of  1892.  One  feature  to  be 
noticed  especially  is  the  Civil  Registration  of  every  in- 
habitant. Still  others  are  the  Railway  Commission, 
Assessing  and  Registering  Boards,  Embassies,  Consu- 
lates, Copyright  and  Patent  Offices,  &c. 

RELIEF  AND  CHARITIES.  In  these  provisions 
the  State  is  liberal.  It  provides  protection  against  Ava- 
lanches, has  numerous  Charity  Bureaus,  Homes  for 
Orphans  and  Idiots,  General  and  Infant  Hospitals,  Ine- 
briate and  Insane  Asylums,  and  provides  Insurance 
against  Accidents,  Sickness  (since  1890),  and  Fire. 
The  latter  was  begun  by  Cantons  in  1S08.  The  State 
now  monopolizes  the  business  and  makes  it  obligatory. 


193 

It  also  provides  Public  Pawn  Shops,  a  Pension  Depart- 
ment, Poor  Houses,  and  work  for  the  unemployed.  On 
June  ist,  1S93,  there  were  only  153  beggars  and  tramps 
in  this  nation  of  3,000,000  people. 

Among  the  provisions  for  Sanitation  and  Safety  is 
especially  to  be  noted  the  Physicians  for  cities  provid- 
ing medical  service  and  medicines.  This  was  inaugu- 
rated as  a  State  department  in  1894.  In  addition  to  this, 
either  Federal  or  Municipal  authorities  make  provisions 
for  Drinking  Founts  and  Troughs,  Fountains,  Fire 
Department,  Forests,  Garbage  Gathering,  Parks,  Sew- 
erage, Slaughter  Houses  (in  Bern),  Water  Works,  &c. 


TASMANIA. 

(BRITISH.) 
AREA,  26,215  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  146,667  in  1891. 

This  beautiful  island  was  cursed  in  the  beginning  of 
its  European  settlement,  from  being  made  a  penal  colony 
by  the  British  government.  It  was  not  to  be  expected 
that  it  would  show  (even  when  the  transportation  of 
prisoners  ceased)  a  very  rapid  progress  in  social  develop- 
ment. Although  not  equal  to  some  of  the  other  Austra- 
lasian colonies,  it  is  yet  making  commendable  advanc- 
ment. 

Its  Militia  numbers  601.  There  were  3,219  mi.  of  Post 
Roads  in  1891,  besides  many  Turnpikes.  In  1870  the 
Government  began  to  assume  the  ownership  of  the  Rail- 
ways. In  1892  it  possessed  475  mi.,  only  49  mi.  being 
left  to  private  companies.  The  399  mi.  opened  at  the  end 
of  1890  had  cost  ;^3,oS8,S82.  They  pay  working  ex- 
penses and  a  little  more.  The  Post-offices  in  1892  num- 
bered 345  ;  had  615  employes ;  took  in  ^54,736  ;  expended 
^54,066  ;  and  had  net  profits  of  ^670.  The  State  Tele- 
graph lines  in  1S92  covered  2,222  mi.  with  3,38^  mi.  of 
wire,  and  232  offices.  The  Telephone  wire  was  555  mi. 
The  receipts  for  both  were  £i<),o^6  ;  expenses,  ^28,646  ; 


194 

deficit,  ^9'59°-  (The  year  before  there  was  a  profit  of 
;^i,8o2.)  In  1892  there  were  366  mi.  of  Cable.  Some 
Street  Railways,  Street  Lighting,  Express  Service,  Har- 
bors, Wharves,  Bridges  and  Markets  are  public  property. 

Education  till  recently  has  been  very  backward.  In 
1891,  25.38  %  of  the  population  could  neither  read  nor 
write.  There  were  564  children  attending  ragged 
schools.  In  1892  the  Primary  Schools  numbered  251, 
with  20,659  pupils.  There  were  14  Secondary,  with 
1,742  pupils;  I  University;  5  Technological,  and  other 
schools.  The  Government  grant  in  1892  was  ;^46,o56. 
The  Government  contributes  annually  ^^"775  for  various 
religious  purposes.  There  are  35  Public  Libraries,  and 
various  other  public  educational  facilities. 

The  Governor  General  and  6  Ministers  lead  the  admin- 
istration. Parliament  consists  of  2  Houses  :  a  Legislative 
Council  of  18  members  (elected  for  6  years),  and  a  House 
of  Assembly  with  36  members  (elected  for  3  years).  Be- 
sides these  are  the  county  and  municipal  offices.  The 
Courts  comprise  Supreme,  Quarter  Sessions,  General,  and 
Petty.  There  were  314  Police  in  1891.  Other  legal  ma- 
chinery includes  Prisons,  Assessing  and  Registering 
Boards,  Consuls,  and  Railway  Commissions. 

lu  provision  for  Relief  there  were  at  the  end  of  1891, 
2  Poor  Houses  with  700  inmates,  Hospitals,  Dispensaries, 
Lic:ht  Houses,  &c. 


TONQUIN. 

(farther    INDIA.       FRENCH.) 

AREA,  34,740  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  about  9,000,000  in  1884. 

Tonquin  is  a  comparatively  recent  acquisition  of  the 
French  Government.  The  people  are  of  the  Indo-Chi- 
nese type,  and  civilization  among  them  is  in  a  low  state. 
The  French  maintain  garrisons,  and  have  organized  na- 
tive defense  forces.  As  before  stated  the  lowest  govern- 
ment is,  to  the  extent  that  it  is  a  government  at  all,  a 


195 

cooperation,  a  social  compact,  tacit  or  expressed.  In 
any  country  where  millions  of  people  live  together  in 
comparatively  small  areas,  the  feeling  of  social  relation- 
ship is  very  extensively  developed.  Simple  though  such 
a  society  may  seem  to  us  because  of  our  relatively  more 
complex  organization,  it  is  yet  ages  and  ages  on  the  way 
of  socialized  effort.  Such  peoples  must  have  common 
Paths,  Roads,  Streets,  Bridges,  Markets,  Rivers,  Schools, 
Public  Grounds,  various  modes  of  mutual  assistance,  and 
considerable  paraphernalia  for  the  maintainence  of  I.aw 
and  Order.  In  such  countries,  almost  no  statistics  are 
obtainable  ;  and  yet  many  of  the  facts  regarding  their 
socialization  are  clear. 


TRINIDAD. 

(west    indies.       BRITISH.) 
AREA,  1,754  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  200,028  in  1S91. 

This  interesting  island  lies  a  few  miles  off  the  northern 
coast  of  South  America.  It  is  a  British  colony  of  pro- 
gressive importance.  In  1891  its  home  Militia  consisted 
of  600  men.  There  is  a  Colonial  Bank  with  a  note  cir- 
culation of  ^^135, 000.  The  Postal  Savings  Bank  at  the 
end  of  1892  showed  7,784  depositors,  and  £106, "jGy  de- 
posited. The  Government  owns  all  the  Railways,  543^ 
mi.  in  1892,  the  cost  of  which  had  been^6o2,638.  The 
receipts  for  that  year  were  ^'54,841  ;  expenses,  }C;^G,642  ; 
profits,  ;^iS,i99.  It  had  also  an  established  Postal  .Ser- 
vice with  440  offices;  and  137 j{  mi.  of  Telegraph  line. 
There  were  also  600  mi.  of  Telephone  wire. 

In  1892,  169  Primary  Schools,  with  18,247  pupils  ;  and 
2  Colleges,  with  224  students  are  reported.  Various 
other  Schools  also  exist.  The  Government  grant  for 
elementary  PMucation  was  ;^25,372  in  1892.  The  Gov- 
ernment owns  a  Pitch  Lake  which  in  1892  produced  a 
revenue  of  ^37,346. 


196 

It  has  the  British  colonial  type  of  Government ;  some 
idea  of  the  scope  of  which  may  be  obtained  from  the 
fact  that  in  1S93  the  Police  Force  numbered  531. 

TUNIS. 

(frexxh.) 

AREA,  45,000  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  1,500,000  in  1891. 

Tunis  is  related  to  France  much  as  Algeria  is.  It  is 
less  advanced  socially.  There  were  about  260  mi.  of 
Railway  in  1892,  all  of  which  was  State  property.  The 
Postal  Service  then  had  46  offices,  which  were  also  Tele- 
graph offioes  for  the  2,000  mi.  of  State  line.  The  report 
for  1889  shows  67  Primary  Schools,  with  9,494  pupils. 
The  Government  expense  for  Education  in  1892  was 
617,106  fr. 

TURKEY. 

AREA,  1,147,578  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  27,694,600  in  18S5. 

These  figures  include  the  territory  in  Europe  and  Asia. 
Turkey,  from  a  political  point  of  view,  is  yet  an  absolute 
despotism,  restrained  only  by  religious  tenets  and  pow- 
erful customs.  The  Sultan  is  the  representative  of  the 
Prophet,  hence  religion  is  a  matter  of  State  patronage. 
Before  1S44  Mohammedans  could  not  change  faith  with- 
out being  liable  to  capital  punishment.  Although  Islam 
generally  prevails,  yet  other  religions  are  tolerated 
(though  their  safety  has  often  been  precarious,  and  is 
even  yet,  as  the  Armenian  atrocities  of  the  present  year 
clearly  show). 

The  regular  Army  in  1892  numbered  i So, 000;  the 
Militia,  520,620;  the  Navy,  40,389.  There  were  2  Battle- 
ships, 7  Port  Defense  Ships,  67  Cruisers,  31  Torpedo 
Boats;  in  all,  107  War  Vessels.  In  1892  reports  make 
the  State  the  sole  owner  of  the  1,878  mi.  of  Railway  (904 
in  Europe  and  974  in  Asia),  with  286  mi.  more  then  build- 


197 

ing.  Its  Postal  Service  then  included  1,150  offices;  20- 
3>So  mi.  of  Telegraph  line,  31,700  mi.  of  wire,  and  671 
offices.  Its  receipts  for  the  year  1S92  were  51,615,526 
piastres;  expenses  for  salaries,  17,669,044;  profits,  T,Sr 
946,482  piastres,  (i  piastre  equals  2.16  d.  or  about  4^ 
cts.)  Turkey  has  numerous  towns  and  cities,  and,  like 
all  large  nations,  has  a  vast  amount  of  State  and  muni- 
cipal property  in  the  form  of  Roads,  Streets,  Rivers, 
Harbors,  Bridges,  Markets,  &c.  Irrigation  by  primitive 
methods  is  carried  on  over  extensive  areas.  In  Palestine, 
Syria  and  elsewhere  it  dates  from  very  ancient  times. 
The  Ministry  of  Public  Works  has  lately  (1894)  deter- 
mined on  the  reconstruction  of  the  ancient  water  con- 
duits about  Jerusalem.  These  include  the  ancient  "  Sol- 
omon's Pools,"  &c.  2,500  cu.  meters  daily  is  expected 
to  be  the  capacity.  Of  this,  1,000  cubic  meters  are  to  be 
given  free  to  the  poor.  The  total  expense  will  reach 
2,000,000  fr. 

In  1SS7  there  were  6,639  Primary  Schools,  with  7,244 
teachers  and  130,000  pupils  ;  21  Secondary  Schools,  with 
2,431  pupils;  15  Colleges,  with  2,347  pupils  ;  Law;  Medi- 
cal ;  and  Theological.  Over  100  pupils  are  educated  in 
France,  England,  Austria,  and  Germany  at  Government 
expense.  This  is  a  distinctly  broadening  tendency  in 
the  direction  of  democracy. 


U  R  A  G  U  AY. 

AREA,  72,110  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  72^.447  in  ^§92. 

The  Regular  Army  is  very  small,  numbering  only 
3,650  ;  the  Militia,  3,264;  and  the  Navy,  179,  with  6  Port 
Defense  Ships  and  3  Cruisers. 

(The  Railways  are  private,  980  mi.  were  constructed 
and  140  more  under  construction.)  The  Postal  Service 
had  in  1892,  474  offices  ;  the  State  owned  2,930  mi.  of 
Telegraph  line.     (974  mi.  more  were  owned  by  railway 


198 

companies.)  Besides  these  must  be  mentioned  Roads, 
Streets,  Bridges,  Markets,  &c. 

In  1892  there  were  491  Primary  Schools,  with  879 
teachers  and  45,953  pupils  ;  i  University,  with  74  instruc- 
tors and  781  students;  2  Normal;  i  Industrial,  with  163 
students;  i  Military,  with  8  instructors  and  61  cadets; 
besides  many  religious  Seminaries.  The  cost  to  the 
General  Government  for  Education  in  1892  was  $658,276. 
There  is  a  National  Library  of  22,000  volumes  and  2,500 
manuscripts.  There  is  also  a  National  Museum  and 
various  other  means  of  information.  The  State  Church 
is  Roman  Catholic,  but  there  exists  complete  toleration. 

The  Government  is  in  the  form  of  a  republic.  At  its 
head  stands  the  President,  Cabinet  and  Congress  of  2 
Houses:  a  Senate  of  19  members  (elected  for  6  years), 
House  of  53  Representatives  (elected  for  3  years).  These 
are  supported  by  a  Police  Force  of  3,980,  by  various 
Courts,  Prisons,  &c. 


VENEZUELA. 

AREA,  593,943  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  2,323,527  in  1891. 

Venezuela  had  a  Regular  Army  of  7,280  in  1893;  a 
Militia  of  60,000  ;  and  a  Navy  of  3  Cruisers  and  i  Tor- 
pedo Boat.  It  has  nothing  to  offer  in  the  way  of  exper- 
ience in  advanced  social  experiments.  (Its  Railways, 
287  mi.,  are  under  private  ownership.)  The  State  man- 
ages the  Postal  System,  and  had  Telegraph  lines  to  the 
extent  of  3,528  mi.,  with  102  offices  in  1890.  The  Tele- 
graph receipts  for  that  year  were  326,904  bolivares  ;  ex- 
penses, 924,607  ;  deficit,  597,703.  (i  bolivar  equals  about 
20  cts.) 

The  meagre  reports  regarding  Education  showed  in 
1891,  1,566  Primary  Schools;  24  Colleges;  4  Normal; 
Law;  Medical;  Music;  Technological;  Industrial;  9 
Military  ;  Nautical ;  and  a  Government  expense  of  $669,- 
144   in    1890.     The    National    Library   contains    32,000 


199 

volumes.  There  is  a  National  Museum.  The  Roman 
Catholic  is  the  State  Church.  Others  are  tolerated,  "if 
silent."  The  Government  is  republican.  The  Congress 
has  a  Senate  of  24  members  (elected  for  4  years),  and 
a  House  of  52  Representatives  (elected  for  4  years). 
Much  other  Law  and  Order  machinery  exists. 

VICTORIA. 

(aUSTR.\LIA.        BRITISH.) 

AREA,  87,884  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  1,140,405  in  1891. 

Victoria,  is  potentially  one  of  the  best  countries  on  the 
face  of  the  globe.  Its  climate  is  as  near  perfect  as  man 
could  wish  it.  The  average  temperature  is  47°,  while  the 
coldest  ever  experienced  was  32°.  Moreover,  the  colo- 
nists have  taken  advantage  of  their  splendid  opportunity 
and  are  developing  a  social  organization  which  is  already 
an  example  to  many  older  countries. 

DEFENSE.  The  Standing  Armed  Force  in  1892  was 
7,360  (of  whom  379  were  officers)  and  the  Navy  237, 
with  about  7  Cruisers,  &c.  There  was  a  Naval  Reserve 
of  379  men. 

FINANCE  AND  LAND.  The  Coinage  is  in  the 
hands  of  the  Royal  Branch  Mint,  at  Melbourne.  There 
were  370  Postal  Savings  Banks  in  1892.  The  National 
Debt  in  1891  was  ;^43,6io,265.  It  was  incurred  almost 
entirely  for  Railways,  Water-works,  and  School  houses. 
The  State  Land  is  of  several  sorts  :  Agricultural,  12,187,- 
000  acres  ;  Pastural,  14,020,000  ;  Forest,  4,680,000  acres  ; 
Gold-bearing,  1,049,000  acres;  and  Roads,  1,678,000; 
total,  33,614,000  acres. 

DISTRIBUTION.  In  public  ownership  of  the  means 
of  Distribution,  Victoria  is  one  of  the  leading  countries 
of  the  world.  The  Railways  all  belong  to  the  State.  It 
began  its  ownership  in  1854.  In  1892  the  State  owned 
2,903  mi.,  and  on  June  30th  of  that  year  the  total  cost 
had  been  i^3 7, 085,309.     The  receipts  for  that  year  were 


200 

;^3, 095,122;  expenses,  £2,1^8,1^9;  profits,  ^956,983. 
The  net  income  is  sufficient  to  pay  a  large  part  of  the 
Federal  taxes.  In  1890  the  Victorian  Railways  carried 
71,058,940  passengers,  "Compared  with  the  popula- 
tion, scarcely  any  country  in  the  world  carries  so  many 
passengers  by  rail  as  Victoria."  The  Telegraph  lines 
are  also  State  property,  and  in  1892  extended  over  7,100 
mi.,  with  14,000  mi.  of  wire,  and  810  offices.  The  receipts 
for  that  year  were  ;^  166,248.  The  Postal  Service  in  1892 
had  1,766  offices.  Its  receipts  were  ;^336, 552.  The 
combined  receipts  of  Telegraph  and  Post  were  ;^502,8oo  ; 
expenses,  ;^756,i9o  ;  deficit,  ;!{^252,39o.  In  the  same  year 
there  were  587^^^  miles  of  Telephone  line,  with  8,603  mi- 
of  wire,  and  3,700  sets  of  instruments.  To  the  State  or 
towns  belong  also  the  Roads,  Streets,  Bridges,  Harbors, 
Rivers,  Wharves,  Markets,  and  Express  Service.  In  the 
nine  and  one-half  years  ending  with  1873,  the  State 
spent  for  Public  works,  ;^2,22i,7i  i. 

EDUCATION.  The  culture  of  the  people  is  being 
rapidly  provided  for.  In  1892  only  2^  %  of  the  popu- 
lation were  illiterate.  In  the  same  year  there  were  2,140 
Primary  Schools,  with  4,977  teachers  and  248,725  pupils; 
208  Secondary,  with  705  teachers  and  21,799  pupils;  i 
University;  3  Colleges;  36  Technological,  with  196  in- 
structors and  8,500  students;  15  Industrial;  2  Agricul- 
tural ;  Art ;  Normal ;  Law  ;  Medical ;  Theological ;  Blind  ; 
Deaf  and  Dumb.  For  Primary  Education  in  1S92  the 
State  expended  ;^ 740,600.  The  other  means  of  Public 
Information  at  Public  expense  are  numerous.  Of  Li- 
braries alone  in  this  small  country  there  are  405  with  a 
total  of  640,000  volumes.  Add  to  these  the  various 
Bureaus  of  Agriculture,  Census,  Geography,  Ethnology, 
Meteorology  ;  the  Botanic  and  Zoological  Gardens  ;  the 
Expositions  ;  Fairs  ;  Museums  ;  Observatories  ;  Reading 
Rooms,  &c. 

LAW  AND  ORDER.  The  Governor  receives  ap- 
pointment by  the  British  Crown.  He  is  assisted  by  10 
Ministers,  heads  of  departments.     The  Parliament  has  2 


201 

Houses  :  a  Legislative  Council  of  48  members  (elected 
by  the  provinces  for  6  years,  Ys  every  2  years),  and  Leg- 
islative Assembly  of  95  members  (elected  for  3  years). 
There  are  37  counties  and  1S7  municipalities,  all  having 
their  own  public  institutions  of  various  sorts.  The 
Courts  include  License,  County,  Petty  Sessions,  Mines, 
Insolvency,  and  Supreme.  Their  judgments  are  carried 
out  by  Police,  and  the  various  Prisons. 


WEST  AUSTRALIA. 

(BRITISH.) 
AREA,  975,920  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  49,782  in  1891. 

This  is  the  newest  of  the  Australian  colonies.  Scarce- 
ly more  than  a  generation  ago  this  vast  region  was  con- 
sidered a  hopeless  wilderness.  Numerous  settlements 
are  now  under  way  and  an  organized  colony  is  instigat- 
ing many  measures  of  improvement.  In  1892  there  was 
a  Militia  of  6 1 4  (31  of  whom  were  officers),  which  cost  in 
that  year  ;^ 7. 4 1 7.  The  system  of  Postal  Savings  Banks 
has  been  established,  and  at  the  end  of  1891  there  were 
deposits  amounting  to  ;!^44,767.  In  1873,  almost  at  the 
beginning  of  the  Colony,  it  undertook  the  ownership  of 
the  Railways.  In  1893  it  owned  and  managed  309  mi., 
and  was  then  building  2  76  mi.  more.  (Private  companies 
owned  243  mi.)  The  309  mi.  then  built  had  cost  ^914,- 
823  ;  and  in  1S92  had  receipts  of  _;^94,2oi  ;  expenses, 
jC9°,^54',  profits,  ^3,547-  This  young  colony  has  started 
in  right  in  various  other  ways.  It  owns  the  Telegraph, 
and  in  1892  had  3,288  mi.,  with  4,013  mi.  of  wire  and  47 
offices.  The  receipts  for  that  year  were  ;^i 4,997.  It 
was  then  building  375  mi.  more  of  Telegraph.  The 
Postal  Service  in  1892  took  in  receipts  of  ;!^34,978.  The 
total  receipts  of  Telegraph  and  Post  were  ;^49,975  ;  ex- 
penses, ^35,188  ;  profits,  ^14,787.  It  has  had  the  warn- 
ing of  m.onopolies  in  Europe  and  America,  and  is  getting 
possession  of  the  various  chief  means  of  Distribution. 


202 

Of  course,  the  greater  part  of  the  Land  is  still  in  the 
hands  of  the  people  collectively. 

Education  is  being  organized,  though  the  population 
is  scattered.  There  were  117  Primary  Schools,  with  179 
teachers  and  5,973  pupils  in  1S92.  For  them  the  State 
expended  ;^ii,i53.  The  Law  and  Order  phases  of  the 
colony  are  on  the  usual  British  plan  of  an  appointed 
Governor  with  his  Ministers  (5),  and  a  Home  Parlia- 
ment. The  latter  has  2  Houses:  a  Legislative  Council 
of  15  members  (now  named  by  the  Governor  but  even- 
tually to  be  elected),  and  an  Assembly  of  30  members 
(elected  for  4  years).  West  Australia  became  a  respon- 
sible government  in  1890.  It  is  now  rapidly  evolving  a 
complete  social  organism.  It  has  its  Courts  of  Justice, 
Prisons,  and  the  various  Boards.  Moreover  it  has  begun 
those  enterprises  of  Relief  and  Charity  which  must  in- 
variably follow  in  the  train  of  our  unequal  social  devel- 
opments. In  1891,  in  this  new  land  where  the  effects  of 
greed  ought  to  be  entirely  wanting,  there  were  2  Poor 
Houses  which  together  had  169  inmates.  There  were  4 
Orphan  Homes,  13  General  Hospitals,  and  i  Insane 
Asylu.m, 


WINDWARD  ISLANDS. 

(west  indies.       BRITISH.) 

AREA,  133  (?)  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  55,333  in  1S92. 

This  term  is  rather  vaguely  used.  The  principal 
islands  of  the  group  are  Barbadoes,  St.  Vincent,  Gre- 
nada, The  Grenadines,  Tobago,  and  St.  Lucia.  The 
group  is  named  with  reference  to  the  trade-winds  and 
the  Leeward  Islands.  They  each  have  a  local  govern- 
ment (except  the  Grenadines).  Altogether,  they  form 
part  of  a  larger  colony  whose  Governor-General  resides 
in  Barbadoes.  Some  of  them  have  local  legislatures  of 
elected  members.  They  have  also  the  various  legal  ma- 
chinery which    belongs    to  this   stage  of  development. 


203 

There  are  towns  and  cities,  with  the  innumerable  social- 
ized institutions  necessary  to  municipalities.  There  is 
public  provision  for  Education,  and  numerous  Public 
Relief  institutions. 

ZANZIBAR  AND  PEMBA. 

(east  AFRICA.       BRITISH.) 

AREA,  0S5  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  about  200,000. 

This  was  formerly  a  Portuguese  colony.  It  is  inhabit- 
ed by  the  m.ost  varied  peoples,  from  Africa,  India,  Ara- 
bia and  Europe.  It  has  been  a  trading  post  for  slaves, 
ivory  and  gold.  Civilization  has  had  no  chance.  Until 
recently,  this  concentration  of  illegitimate  commercial 
interests  has  barbarized  rather  than  civilized.  Under 
British  influence,  something  like  the  organization  of 
these  seemingly  incommensurable  elements  is  being 
brought  about. 

ZULULAND. 

(south-eastern  AFRICA.       BRITISH.) 

AREA,  8,900  sq.  mi.  POPULATION,  160,700  in  1892. 

The  Zulus  are  one  of  the  best  strains  of  African  blood. 
They  are  among  the  most  warlike  people  of  the  world. 
Their  last  king,  Cettiwayo,  was  able  to  raise  an  army  of 
300,000  warriors,  from  his  own  and  dependent  tribes. 
He  was  conquered  by  the  English  general  Wolseley  in  a 
great  war  between  1S77  and  1S79.  Since  then,  indepen- 
dent chiefs  have  ruled  the  various  tribes  under  English 
advice  and  protection.  The  country  as  a  whole  is  nomi- 
nally annexed  to  Natal.  There  is  one  main  Road  run- 
ning through  the  territory,  with  many  branches.  In 
1892  the  Government  had  an  established  Postal  Service, 
and  30  mi.  of  Telegraph  line.  There  were  iS  native 
Primary  Schools,  S  Circuit  Courts,  250  Police,  and  many 
other  socialized  efforts. 


204 


Existing  Socialism. 


A  classified  list  of  337  SOCIALIZED  BUSINESSES, 
ENTERPRISES,  and  INSTITUTIONS,  together  with 
225  Businesses,  Enterprises,  Institutions  and  Events, 
controlled  in  some  degree  by  Governments,  making  562 
types  of  human  effort  that  the  people  (of  various  coun- 
tries) have  already  reclaimed  from  absolute  individual 
management. 


DEFENSE  OF  NATION. 

Regular  Army. 

Militia. 

Armories. 

Armory  Boards. 

Forts. 

Navy. 

Battle  Ships. 

Port  Defense  Ships. 

Cruisers. 

Torpedo  Boats. 

Naval  Reserve. 

FINANCE. 

Banks,  National. 

Banks,  State. 

Banks,  Savings. 

Banks,  Savings,  Postal. 

Banks,  Savings,  School. 

Coinage. 

Customs  Collecting. 

Debt,  National,  State,  &c. 

Internal  Revenue. 

Land,  State. 

Lotteries. 

Note  Issue. 

Office  Buildings  : — 

National. 

State. 

Municipal, 
State  properties. 


Loans. 

Tax  Collecting. 

Treasury. 

DISTRIBUTION. 

Paths. 

Roads. 

Streets. 

Street  Railways  by  :- 

Electric  power. 

Cable  power. 

Steam  power. 

Horse  power. 

Surface. 

Elevated. 

Underground. 
Street  Lighting  by  :- 

Gas. 

Electricity. 
Stage  Coaches. 
Express  Service. 
Railways. 
Rivers,  Navigable. 
River  Improvement. 
Canals,  State. 
Harbors. 
Breakwater. 
Wharves  and  Piers. 
Ferries. 
Tugs. 
Ballast. 


205 


Viaducts. 

Bridges. 

Bridge  Engineers. 

Surveyors. 

Postal  Service. 

Postal  Money  Orders. 

Postal  Notes. 

Telegraph  Lines. 

Cables. 

Telephones. 

Pneumatic  Tubes. 

Subways. 

Cattle  Yards. 

Markets. 

Hotels. 

Restaurants. 

Saloons. 

Drug  Stores. 

Salt  Selling, 

EDUCATION. 

Agricultural  Bureaus. 
Archaeological  Research. 
Art  Galleries. 
Band  Concerts. 
Biological  Research. 
Books  for  Public  Schools. 
Botanic  Gardens. 
Celebrations  and  Parades. 
Census  Bureaus. 
Churches,  State. 
Clocks,  Town. 
Coast  Surveys. 
Concert  Halls  and  Casinos. 
Educational  Bureaus. 
Engraving  Bureaus. 
Etonological  Bureaus. 
Exploring  Expeditions. 
E.xpositions  and  Fairs. 
Geographical  Surveys. 
Geological  Surveys. 
Libraries. 

Meteorlogical  Bureaus. 
Monuments  and  Statues. 
Museums. 
Nautical  Almanac. 


Newspapers. 
Observatories. 
Polar  Expeditions. 
Printing. 
Reading  Rooms. 
Schools,  State  : — 

Kindergartens. 

Primary. 

Secondary. 

College. 

University. 

Normal. 

Law. 

Medical. 

Dental. 

Theological. 

Art. 

Music. 

Domestic  Economy. 

Post  and  Telegraph. 

Technological. 

Forestry. 

Mines. 

Industrial. 

Agricultural. 

Veterinary. 

Military. 

Naval. 

Nautical. 

Nobility. 

Blind. 

Indian. 

Deaf  and  Dumb. 

Reformatory. 
Technical  and  Mechanical  Ex- 
periment Bureaus. 
Theatres. 

Theological  Research. 
Zoological  Gardens. 
Zoological  Research. 

FOOD  PRODUCTION. 

Breweries. 

Cooling  Plants. 

Cow  Meadows. 

Distilleries. 


206 


Farming. 

Fish  Commissions. 

Guano. 

Irrigation. 

Mineral  Springs. 

Salt  Mines  and  Wells. 

Salt  Works. 

Vineyards. 

Wine  Cellars. 

MEANS  PRODUCTION. 

Alcohol. 

Blast  Furnaces. 

Car  Building. 

Cats  in  Postal  Service. 

Cement  Factories. 

Cinchona  Farms. 

Clay  Pits. 

Coal  Mines. 

Cobalt  Mines. 

Copper  Mines. 

Dry  Docks. 

Engineering  Department. 

Foundries. 

Gold  Mines. 

Gunpowder. 

Iron  Mines. 

Lead  Mines. 

Lime  Quarries. 

Locomotive  Works. 

Matches. 

Opium. 

Pearl  Fisheries. 

Peat  Beds. 

Pitch  Lake. 

Porcelain  Factories. 

Quinine. 

Quarries. 

Rope  Walks. 

Saw  Mills. 

Ship  Building. 

Silk  Culture. 

Silver  Mines. 

Slate  Mines. 

Smelting  Works. 

Sulphate  of  Copper  Mines. 


Tapestry  Factories. 
Timber. 
Ultramarine  Works. 

LAW  AND  ORDER. 

Accounts  Commissioners. 

Advertising. 

Allotments. 

Ambassadors. 

Apportioning  Boards. 

Appraising  Commissioners. 

Aqueduct  Commissioners. 

Arbitration  Commissioners. 

Assaying  Commissioners. 

Assessing  Boards. 

Attorneys,   District. 

Auditing,  Boards. 

Bankrupt  Registry. 

City  Chamberlains. 

Civil  Registration. 

Civil  Service  Boards. 

Comptrollers. 

Consuls. 

Copyright  Bureaus. 

Coroners. 

Corporation  Counsels. 

Courts  of  Justice : — 

Civil. 

Criminal. 

Claims. 

Police. 

Oyer  and  Terminer. 

General  Sessions. 

.Supreme  and  Cassation. 

Superior. 

Common  Pleas. 

Surrogate. 

District. 

Arbitration. 

Military  (Court  Martial). 

Commercial. 

Ecclesiastical. 

Mines. 

Insolvency. 

License. 
Customs  Collecting. 


207 


Dock  Board. 
Elections  Bureau. 
Encumbrance  Bureau. 
Executive  Departments  : — 

National. 

Provincial. 

Municipal. 
Immigration  Bureaus. 
Inter-State    Commerce   Com- 
missioners. 
Jury  Commissioners. 
Juries,  Grand. 
Juries,  Petit. 
Labor  Bureau. 
Legislative  Assemblies : — 

National. 

Provincial. 

Municipal  and  Aldermanic. 
Marriages. 
Marshals,  District. 
Ministers,  Foreign. 
Municipal  Examining  Boards. 
Park  Commissioners. 
Patent  Oflfices. 
Pilot  Boards. 
Police. 

Port  Wardens. 
Pounds. 
Prefects. 
Prisons : — 

Police  Stations. 

Jails. 

Houses  of  Juvenile  Correc- 
tion. 

Reformatories. 

Penitentiaries. 

Military. 
Railroad  Commissions. 
Registrars  of  Deeds. 
Revenue  Cutters. 
River  Commissions. 
Secret  Service. 

Sinking  Fund  Commissioners. 
Subway  Commissioners. 


RELIEF  AND  CHARITIES. 
Annuity  Grants. 
Charity  Bureaus. 
Dispensaries. 
Homes  for : — 

Aged. 

Orphans. 

Idiots. 

Sailors. 

Soldiers. 
Hospitals : — 

General. 

Epidemic. 

Inebriate  Asylums. 

Infant. 

Insane. 

Lying  In. 

Marine. 

Military. 

Eye  and  Ear. 

Orthopedic. 
Houses  of  Refuge. 
Implements  Loaned. 
Indian  (or  Aborigines)  Depart- 
ment. 
Insurance : — 

Accident. 

Fire. 

Storm  or  Marine. 

Life. 

Old  Age. 

Sickness. 

Inundation. 
Leper  Farms  or  Villages. 
Life  Saving. 
Light  Houses. 
Lodging  Houses. 
Nurseries. 
Pawn  Shops. 
Pension  Department. 
Poor  Houses. 
Poor,  Housing  of. 
School  Meals. 
Seed,  Farm. 
Signal  Corps. 
Tax  Loans. 


208 


Trust  Offices. 
Unemployed,  Work  for. 

SANITATION  and  SAFETY. 
Avalanche  Protection. 
Baths. 
Cemeteries. 
Dock  Department. 
Drinking  Founts  and  Troughs. 
Electric  Lighting. 
Fire  Alarm  Telegraph. 
Fire  Department. 
Fisheries  Commissioners. 
Forestry. 
Fountains. 

Garbage  and  Refuse  Gather- 
ing. 
Gas  Ligliting. 


Health  Department. 
Heating  Plants. 
Parks. 

Physicians  for  the  City. 
Pilots  Commissioners. 
Play  Grounds. 
Quarantine. 
Sanitaries. 
Seats  in  Parks, 
Sewerage  and  Drainage. 
Slaughter  Houses. 
Street  Cleaning. 
Street  Sprinkling. 
Vaccination  and  Vaccine. 
Wash  Houses. 
Watering  Places. 
Water  Works. 


Government  Interference 

In  businesses,  affairs  or  events  v/hich  it  requires  shall 
be  REGISTERED,  LICENSED,  INSPECTED,  or 
RESTRICTED. 


Air  Shafts. 

Alkali  Works. 

Amusements. 

Anchors. 

Asphalt  Factories. 

Asylums. 

Baby  Farms. 

Bakeries. 

Banks. 

Bankers. 

Bicycles. 

Bills  of  Sale. 

Bird  Stores. 

Births. 

Boarding  Houses. 

Bolts. 

Boiler  Inspection. 

Breweries. 

Blacking  Factories. 

Blacksmith  Shops. 

Boiler  Factories. 


Bone  Yards. 

Box  Factories. 

Bridges,  Highway, 

Bridges,  Railway. 

Brokers. 

Buildings. 

Burials. 

Butcher  Shops. 

Cabmen. 

Canal  Boats. 

Candy  Factories. 

Carpenter  Shops. 

Cattleyards. 

Cats. 

Cellars. 

Cesspools. 

Chains. 

Chemical  Works. 

Cheese  Factories. 

Chimneys. 

Cisternb. 


209 


Cigar  Factories. 

Clothing  Factories. 

Clotiies  Poles. 

Clothes  Cleaning. 

Coal  Yards. 

Cold  Storage. 

Copyrights. 

Coats  of  Arms. 

Coffee. 

Common  Lodging  Houses. 

Cows. 

Dairies. 

Dams. 

Dancing  Rooms. 

Dead  Animals. 

Deaths. 

Deeds. 

Dentists. 

Distilleries. 

Divorces. 

Dogs. 

Dog  Carts. 

Druggists. 

Drug  Mills. 

Dumps  for  Garbage. 

Dye  Works 

Dynamos. 

Electors. 

Elections. 

Electric  Works 

Electric  Lamps. 

Elevators. 

Elevator  Factories. 

Endowed  Charities. 

Endowed  Schools. 

Engineers. 

Excavations. 

Explosive  Works. 

Factories. 

Fat  Rendering. 

Fences. 

Ferries. 

Fertilizers. 

Fish  Curing. 

Fish  Markets. 

Fisheries. 


Fire  Escapes. 

Foods. 

Fowls. 

Foundries. 

Friendly  Societies. 

Fruit. 

Fur  Dressing. 

Game  Dealers. 

Gaming  Houses. 

Gas  Meters. 

Gas  Engines.  . 

Gas  Works. 

Gas  Stoves. 

Goats. 

Grain. 

Grease  Works. 

Grocery  Stores. 

Gun  Barrels. 

Gut  Cleaning. 

Hat  Stores 

Heating  and  Power  Plants. 

Hair  Picking. 

Hide  Cellars. 

Hide  Cleaning. 

Hospitals. 

Hogs. 

Hotels. 

Hunting. 

House  Numbering. 

Ice  Factories. 

Insurance. 

Iron  Works. 

Jinrikichas. 

Junk  Dealers. 

Kindling  Wood  Factories 

Laundries. 

Lawyers. 

Leather  Factories. 

Lime-kilns. 

Limited  Companies. 

Locomotives. 

Lotteries. 

Lodging  Houses 

Lumber. 

Machine  Shops, 

Manure  Vaults. 


210 


Markets. 

Matches. 

Marriages. 

Mattress  Factories. 

Meat. 

Merchant  Shipping. 

Merchant  Vessels. 

Midwifery. 

Mines. 

Milk  Stores. 

Moulding  Mills. 

Music  Halls. 

Naturalization. 

Newsboys. 

Newspapers. 

Notaries. 

Offal  Docks. 

Offal  Wagons. 

Oil  Works. 

Omnibuses. 

Oyster  Saloons. 

Passports. 

Patents. 

Patent  Medicines. 

Pawnbrokers. 

Peddlers. 

Periodicals. 

Physicians. 

Pharmacists. 

Piano  Factories. 

Piano  Playing. 

Pickle  Factories. 

Pigeons. 

Piers. 

Places  of  Worship. 

Planing  Mills. 

Plate  Dealers. 

Plays. 

Playing  Card  Makers. 

Ponds  of  Water. 

Plumbing. 

Print  Works. 

Printing  Houses. 

Privy  Vaults. 

Post  Office  Depredations. 

Rabbits. 


Rag  Shops. 
Railways. 
Railway  Depots. 
Raw  Cotton. 
Real  Estate  Sales. 
Restaurants. 
Roof  Tanks. 
Rubber  Goods  Factories. 
Saloons- 
Sausage  Works. 
Saw  Mills. 
Schools. 

Schools  of  Anatomy. 
Seamen. 
Sewer  Pipes. 
Second  Hand  Stores. 
Ships. 
Silk  Works. 
Skylights. 
Slop  Sinks. 
Smelting  Works. 
Slaughter  Houses. 
Spice  Mills. 
Smoke  Houses. 
Stables. 
Steamboats, 
Steam  Engines. 
Street  Railways, 
Soap  Factories. 
Stone  Yards. 
Steam  Heating  Pipes. 
Storage  Warehouses. 
Surgeons. 
Tea. 

Tenement  Houses. 
Theatres. 

Theatre  and  Concert  Licenses. 
Tobacconists. 
Trade  Marks. 
Tug  Boats. 
Urinals. 
Vaccination. 

Vivisection  Laboratories. 
Weights  and  Measures. 
Wells. 


MAP     OF  THE   WORLD 

SHOWING  IN  RED  THE  COUNTRIES  WHICH 
OWN  THEIR  RAILROADS    WHOLLY  OR  IN  PART 


211 


THE  FOLLOWING 

54  Governments  own  their  Railroads, 

WHOLLY  OR  IN  PART: 
(from  the  most  recext  reports.) 


Name  of 

Date  of  first 

Miles 

Date  of 

Country. 

Ownership. 

Owned. 

Report. 

Algeria, 

•       1,956 

(1892) 

Argentina, 

(1862) 

.      i,8'7 

(18       ) 

Austria- Hungary, 

(1840) 

■     7,029 

(1892) 

Belgium, 

i^^ZZ) 

2,018 

(1892) 

Brazil, 

1,568 

(1893) 

Bulgaria, 

306 

(1892) 

Canada, 

1,397 

(1892) 

Cape  of  Good  Hope, 

(1862) 

2,252 

(1892) 

Ceylon, 

230 

(1892) 

Chili, 

(1865) 

686 

(1892) 

Cochin  China, 

51 

Colombia, 

238 

Congo  Independent  State, 

25 

(1893) 

Denmark, 

(IS80) 

'      992 

(1892) 

Dutch  East  Indies,* 

S50 

(1891) 

Ecuador,* 

63 

(1891) 

Egypt, 

(.856) 

1,225 

(1892) 

Finland, 

•     1,176 

(1891) 

France, 

3.643 

(1892) 

Germany, 

(•843) 

23.843 

(.892) 

Greece, 

92 

(1892) 

Guiana,  British, 

23 

(1893) 

India, 

(1852) 

6,000 

(1893) 

Italy, 

(i860) 

8,047 

(1889) 

Jamaica,* 

89 

(1892) 

Japan, 

(I8S3) 

551 

(1892) 

212 


Xame  of 

Date  of  first 

Miles 

Date  of 

Country. 

Ownership. 

Owned. 

{eport. 

Massowali, 

.    '7 

Mauritius, 

■  92       ( 

1892) 

Mozavibiqiie, 

137       ( 

1892) 

Natal, 

(i860) 

399     ( 

1892) 

Netherlands, 

986     ( 

1892) 

Newfoundland, 

311      ( 

1892) 

New  South  Wales, 

(1855) 

2.351      ( 

1893) 

New  Zealand, 

(1863) 

1,886      ( 

1893) 

Nicaragua, 

9^ 

Norway, 

(1854) 

929     ( 

.1893) 

Orange  Free  State, 

120 

^1890) 

Paraguay,  (State  owns 

'j  the  Stock) 

.1891) 

Peru, 

770 

[1892) 

Porto  Rico,* 

12 

J892) 

Portugal, 

(1863) 

505     < 

I  891) 

Queensland, 

(1865) 

2,353     < 

^1892) 

Roumania,     . 

^598     1 

^893) 

Russia, 

.     6,824 

J891) 

Salvador,*     .         .     . 

53     ( 

J  892) 

Santo  Domingo,*     . 

72     ( 

J  892) 

Servia, 

336 

^1892) 

South  African  Republic, 

200 

;i893) 

South  Australia, 

(1856) 

i,8io 

^1892) 

Sweden,         .     , 

.      1,770 

1892) 

Switzerland,  (City  Subi 

irban  Roads,) 

Tasmania, 

(1870) 

475      ( 

1892) 

Trinidad, 

54     ( 

.1892) 

Tunis, 

260 

^1892) 

Turkey,* 

.      1,878 

^1892) 

Victoria, 

(1854) 

•      2,903 

[1892) 

West  Australia, 

(1S73) 

309 

[1893) 

*Note.  In  several  cases  the  reports  do  not  make  it 
clear  whether  the  Government  is  the  sole  owner.  In  all 
the  cases  marked  with  a  star,  the  Government  influence 
predominates,  and  in  many  others  not  here  mentioned, 
the  private  lines  receive  Government  support. 


213 

The  Governments  are  sole  owners  of  all  lines  in  those 
countries  printed  in  italics.  In  several  countries  in 
Europe  and  Australasia  the  private  lines  have  a  very 
small  mileage. 

This  list  covers  the  leading  nations  of  the  world,  and 
the  United  States  "is  not  in  it."  We  claim  incompetency, 
and  yet  we  boast  that  "we  are  the  greatest  nation  on 
earth"  that  "wr  are  the  people,''  that  "we  are  the  most 
ingenious  in  mechanism,  the  most  fertile  in  resource, 
the  most  daring  in  method,  and  the  most  persistent  in 
action."  And  yet  we  can't  run  railroads !  We  can't 
prevent  ourselves  from  being  swindled  out  of  untold 
millions  every  year!  Where  is  our  greatness  to  thus 
submit  to  all  manner  of  imposition  at  far  higher  rates 
than  is  paid  in  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  or  Australia? 

ONLY 

Private  or  Company  Railroads 

IN  THE  EOLLOWING  COUNTRIES  :— 

Barbadoes.  Morocco. 

Basutoland.  Persia. 

Bolivia.  Siam. 

Costa  Rica.  Spain. 

Cuba.  UNITED  STATES. 

Guatemala.  United  Kint^dom, 

Hawaii.  (Great  I'.ritain.) 

Honduras  Republic.  Venezuela. 

Mexico.  Zululand. 

Montenegro. 

No  Railways  Reported  in 

China.  Corea. 

Falkland  Islands.  F'iji. 

Guiana,  Dutch.  Guiana,  French. 

Haiti.  Windward  Islands. 


214 


THE  FOLLOWING 


68  Governments  own  their  Telegraphs 

(from  the  most  recent  reports.) 


Mi.  of  Line. 

Mi.  of  Wire. 

Algeria, 

4,310 

10,000 

Argentina, 

11,250 

Austria-Hungary, 

31,862 

89,244 

Barbadoes, 

Basutoland, 

Belgium, 

4,617 

22,739 

Bermudas, 

32 

Brazil, 

8,620 

Bulgaria, 

4,710 

8,484 

Canada, 

2,699 

Cape  of  Good  Hope, 

5,482 

Ceylon, 

1,550 

Chili, 

8,000 

China, 

Cochin  China,* 

1,840 

Colombia, 

6,016 

Congo  Independent  Sta 

te,* 

Corea,*     . 

Costa  Rica, 

630 

Cuba,*      . 

Denmark, 

2,816 

Dutch  East  Indies, 

4.247 

Ecuador, 

1,074 

Egypt,      . 

1,922 

Finland, 

France,     . 

59,693 

197,622 

Germany, 

73,197 

259,628 

Greece, 

4.751 

5.630 

Guiana,  British, 

215 


Mi.  of  Line. 

Mi.  of  Wire. 

India, 

38,625 

120,159 

Italy, 

22,014 

69,428 

Jamaica,* 

695 

Japan, 

3,143 

9,114 

Massovvah, 

382 

Mauritius, 

Mexico, 

38,125 

Montenegro,* 

280 

Mozambique,* 

230 

Natal, 

Netherlands, 

3.398 

12,098 

Newfoundland,* 

944 

New  South  Wales, 

26,443 

New  Zealand, 

5,479 

13,459 

Norway, 

4,887 

9,663 

Orange  Free  State, 

1,500 

Paraguay, 

210 

Persia, 

4,075 

Peru, 

1,080 

Porto  Rico, 

470 

Portugal, 

3.985 

8,839 

Queensland, 

9,996 

I  7,646 

Roumania, 

3,524 

8,000 

Russia, 

88,280 

172,360 

Salvador,* 

1,467 

2,421 

Servia, 

1,942 

3.717 

South  African  Republ 

ic,               1,681 

South  Australia, 

5,267 

12,911 

Spain,*     . 

15,988 

35,094 

Sweden,* 

5.477 

14,600 

Switzerland, 

4,515 

I  1,990 

Tasmania, 

2,222 

3,383 

Trinidad, 

137 

Tunis, 

2,000 

Turkey,* 

20,380 

3'  700 

United  Kingdom, 

34,056 

209,046 

(Great  Britian  and  Irel 

ind.) 

216 


Mi.  of  Line. 

Mi.  of  Wire. 

Uruguay, 

2,930 

Victoria, 

7,100 

14,000 

West  Australia, 

3,288 

4,013 

Zululand, 

30 

*The  reports  are  not  clear  as  to  the  full  extent  of  Gov- 
ernment ownership  and  control.  The  number  of  miles 
are  not  given  in  all  reports. 


Private  or  Company  Telegraphs 

Only  exist  in  the  following  countries: 

Bolivia.  Cuba. 

Cyprus.  Hawaii. 

Honduras  Republic.  UNITED   STATES. 

"A  man  is  known  by  the  company  he  keeps."      How 
about  a  nation  ? 


217 


STATE  SAVINGS  BANKS 


Exist  in  the  following;  countries 


Argentina. 

Austria-Hungary. 

Belgium. 

Canada. 

Ceylon. 

Denmark. 

Finland. 

France. 

Germany. 

Hawaii. 

India. 

Italy. 

Japan. 


Netherlands. 
New  South  Wales. 
New  Zealand. 
Norway. 
Queensland, 
South  Australia. 
Sweden. 
Switzerland. 
Trinidad. 
United  Kingdom. 
Victoria. 
West  Australia. 


218 


The  following  works  have  been  found  helpful,  and  will 
be  interesting  to  those  seeking  further  information  : 

Statesman's  Year-book,  1S94. 
Halzell's  Annual,  1S94. 
Constitutional  Year-book,  1S94. 
Year-book  of  Australia,  1S93. 
Mulhall's  Dictionary  of  Statistics,  1892. 
Canada  Statistical  Year-book,  1891. 
Colonial  Ofifice  List  for  1889  and  1893. 
Poor's  Manual  of  Railroads,  1893. 

United  States  Special  Consular  Reports.  Canals  and  Irriga- 
tion.    Vol.  5,  1891. 

Whittaker's  Almanack,  1894. 

Appleton's  Annual  Cyclopedia,  1893. 

Johnson's  Universal  Cyclopedia,  new  edition,  1894. 

Encyclopedia  Britannica,  ninth  edition. 

Chambers'  Cyclopedia,  last  edition. 

Resume  Statistique  de  1'  Empire  du  Japon,  je  annee-  Tokio, 

1893- 

J.  M.  Vincent,  State  and  Federal  Government  in  Switzerland. 

Almanac  de  Gotha,  1893. 

Compendium  of  United  States  Census,  1893. 

Statistical  Abstract  of  the  United  States,  1893. 

Official  Catalogue  of  the  Exhibition  of  the  German  Empire, 
World's  Columbian  Exposition,  Chicago,  1893. 

The  Manual  of  American  Waterworks,  edited  by  M.  N.  Baker, 
for  1S91. 

Atlantic,  July,  1894. 

Century,  July,  1894. 

Century,  vol.  xxxix  (1889-90). 

Review  of  Reviews,  February,  1893,  and  August,  1S94. 

New  Review,  July,  1894. 

Scottish  Review,  vol.  xx. 

H.  L.  Loucks,  Government  Ownership  of  Railroads  and  Tele- 
graphs, 1893. 

H.  L.  Loucks.    The  New  Monetary  System,  1893. 

H.  M.  Hyndman,  Commercial  Crisis  of  the  Nineteench  Cen- 
tury, 1892. 

Thomas  Kirkup.     A  History  of  Socialism,  1S92. 


219 

Wm.  H.  Dawson.  German  Socialism  and  Ferdinand  Las- 
salle,  1888. 

Sidney  Webb,  Socialism  in  England,  1889. 

A.  H.  D.  Ackland  and  Benjamin  Jones,  Workingmen  CoOpera- 
tors,  1884. 

William  Morris,  Socialism  and  Social  Reform,  1892. 

Echoes  from  the  Sunset  Club,  1891. 

R.  T.  Ely,  Socialism  and  Social  Reform,  1894. 

Thomas  F.  Gilroy,  Wealth  of  New  York,  North  American  Re- 
view, vol    157. 

Moses  King,  Handbook  of  New  York  City,  2d  edition,  1893. 

E.  S.  Nadal,  New  Parks  of  the  City  of  New  York.  Scribner's 
Monthly,  vol.  xi. 

Report  of  the  Department  of  Public  Works  of  New  York  City 
for  1893. 

Report  of  the  Comptroller  of  the  City  of  New  York  for  1892. 

Report  of  the  Board  of  Health  of  the  City  of  New  York  for  1892. 

Report  of  the  Board  of  Education  of  New  York  City  for  1893. 

Report  of  the  Supervisory  Board  of  Commissioners  of  the  New 
York  Municipal  Civil  Service  for  1893. 


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